Staging of lung cancer: the role of noninvasive, minimally invasive and invasive techniques.

Accurate staging and restaging of primary tumour and mediastinal nodes in patients with lung cancer is of significant importance. For primary tumours, computed tomography (CT) scans of the chest are recommended. Positron emission tomography (PET) imaging should be used in patients with curative intent treatment to evaluate metastatic disease. Diagnosis of the primary tumour should be performed using bronchoscopy or CT-guided transthoracic needle aspiration. In patients with enlarged mediastinal nodes and no distant metastasis, invasive staging of the mediastinum is required. For suspicious N2 or N3 disease, endoscopic needle techniques, such as endobronchial ultrasound and transbronchial needle aspiration, oesophageal ultrasound and fine needle aspiration, or a combination of both, are preferred to any surgical staging technique. In cases of suspicious nodes and negative results using needle aspiration techniques, invasive surgical staging using mediastinoscopy or video-assisted thoracic surgery should be performed. In central tumours or N1 nodes, preoperative invasive staging is indicated.Restaging after induction therapy remains a controversial topic. Today, neither CT, PET nor PET/CT scans are accurate enough to make final further therapeutic decisions for mediastinal nodal involvement. An invasive technique providing cytohistological information is still recommended.