3D-Printed Sensors and Actuators in Cell Culture and Tissue Engineering: Framework and Research Challenges.

Three-dimensional printing technologies have been recently proposed to monitor cell cultures and implement cell bioreactors for different biological applications. In tissue engineering, the control of tissue formation is crucial to form tissue constructs of clinical relevance, and 3D printing technologies can also play an important role for this purpose. In this work, we study 3D-printed sensors that have been recently used in cell culture and tissue engineering applications in biological laboratories, with a special focus on the technique of electrical impedance spectroscopy. Furthermore, we study new 3D-printed actuators used for the stimulation of stem cells cultures, which is of high importance in the process of tissue formation and regenerative medicine. Key challenges and open issues, such as the use of 3D printing techniques in implantable devices for regenerative medicine, are also discussed.