Comparative biomechanics of hagfish skins: diversity in material, morphology, and movement.

The baggy skins of hagfishes confer whole-body flexibility that enables these animals to tie themselves into knots without injury. The skin's looseness is produced by a subcutaneous blood sinus that decouples the skin and body core and permits the core to contort dramatically without loading the skin in tension or shear. Hagfish skin represents a biological composite material comparable in strength and stiffness to the conventionally taut skins of other fishes. However, our understanding of hagfish skin is restricted to only one of 78 species: The Pacific hagfish Eptatretus stoutii. To determine if other hagfish share similar characteristics with E. stoutii, we measured material properties and compared histological data sets from the skins of four hagfish species: E. springeri, E. stoutii, Myxine glutinosa, and M. hubbsi. We also compared these material properties data with skins from the American eel, Anguilla rostrata. We subjected skin samples from all species to uniaxial tensile tests in order to measure strength, stiffness, extensibility, and toughness of skins stretched along longitudinal and circumferential axes. We also used a series of equibiaxial tensile tests on skin samples from E. stoutii, M. glutinosa, and A. rostrata to measure stiffness of skins simultaneously strained along both axes. Significant results of uniaxial and biaxial tests show that the skins from Eptatretus are anisotropic, being stiffer in the longitudinal axis, and more extensible than the isotropic skins of Myxine. Skins of A. rostrata were stiffer in the circumferential axis and they were stronger, tougher, and stiffer than all hagfish skins examined. The skins of Eptatretus are histologically distinct from Myxine skins and possess arrays of fibers that stain like muscle. These interspecific differences across hagfish skins show a phylogenetic pattern with knotting kinematics and flexibility; both genera belong to distinct but major subfamilies within the Myxinidae, and Eptatretus is known for creating and manipulating a greater diversity of knotting styles than Myxine.