A Review of Biomarkers of Cardiac Allograft Rejection: Toward an Integrated Diagnosis of Rejection.

Despite major advances in immunosuppression, allograft rejection remains an important complication after heart transplantation, and it is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. The gold standard invasive strategy to monitor and diagnose cardiac allograft rejection, based on the pathologic evaluation of endomyocardial biopsies, suffers from many limitations including the low prevalence of rejection, sample bias, high inter-observer variability, and international working formulations based on arbitrary cut-offs that simplify the landscape of rejection. The development of innovative diagnostic and prognostic strategies-integrating conventional histology, molecular profiling of allograft biopsy, and the discovery of new tissue or circulating biomarkers-is one of the major challenges of translational medicine in solid organ transplantation, and particularly in heart transplantation. Major advances in the field of biomarkers of rejection have paved the way for a paradigm shift in the monitoring and diagnosis of cardiac allograft rejection. We review the recent developments in the field, including non-invasive biomarkers to minimize the number of protocol endomyocardial biopsies and tissue biomarkers as companion tools of pathology to refine the diagnosis of cardiac rejection. Finally, we discuss the potential role of these biomarkers to provide an integrated bio-histomolecular diagnosis of cardiac allograft rejection.