Multiple routes to fungicide resistance: Interaction of Cyp51 gene sequences, copy number and expression.

We examined the molecular basis of triazole resistance in Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici (wheat mildew, Bgt), a model organism among powdery mildews. Four genetic models for responses to triazole fungicides were identified among US and UK isolates, involving multiple genetic mechanisms. Firstly, only two amino acid substitutions in CYP51B lanosterol demethylase, the target of triazoles, were associated with resistance, Y136F and S509T (homologous to Y137F and S524T in the reference fungus Zymoseptoria tritici). As sequence variation did not explain the wide range of resistance, we also investigated Cyp51B copy number and expression, the latter using both reverse transcription-quantitative PCR and RNA-seq. The second model for resistance involved higher copy number and expression in isolates with a resistance allele; thirdly, however, moderate resistance was associated with higher copy number of wild-type Cyp51B in some US isolates. A fourth mechanism was heteroallelism with multiple alleles of Cyp51B. UK isolates, with significantly higher mean resistance than their US counterparts, had higher mean copy number, a high frequency of the S509T substitution, which was absent from the United States, and in the most resistant isolates, heteroallelism involving both sensitivity residues Y136+S509 and resistance residues F136+T509. Some US isolates were heteroallelic for Y136+S509 and F136+S509, but this was not associated with higher resistance. The obligate biotrophy of Bgt may constrain the tertiary structure and thus the sequence of CYP51B, so other variation that increases resistance may have a selective advantage. We describe a process by which heteroallelism may be adaptive when Bgt is intermittently exposed to triazoles.