What is left in miombo woodlands? Rarity and commonness of woody species, commercial timber species, and lawful harvestable diameter classes.

Mozambican miombo woodlands (MWs) have been experiencing severe anthropogenic threats, recognized to have an impact on plant species distribution, occurrence, diversity, and rarity patterns. Based on 3725 0.1 ha plots distributed across the country's MWs, this study aimed to assess the species rarity and commonness, protection status, and availability of commercial timber in MWs under varied environmental conditions. Results show that, out of the 515 tree and shrub species found, 45 % were rare, while just 10 % were highly protected. Nine of the 112 commercial miombo species were not observed, and 15 were rare. Commercial-sized trees of the top nine desired species were extremely rare, some species had only 1 tree per 20 ha and stem forms unsuitable for sawmilling. Selective overharvesting has also affected trees with no minimum felling diameter. , , and stood out among the few timber species with commercially viable populations. MWs in the semi-arid ecoregion have lower species richness, fewer commercially viable populations, and a higher number of poorly protected species (51 %). The rainy ecoregion has the highest percentage of poorly protected species (61 %). Based on the results obtained, it was recommended that (1) timber harvesting should be restricted to the humid ecoregion, prohibited for the timber species that were either absent or rare, and halted for the top nine desired species; (2) except , and , MWs should preferably undergo a forest closure period corresponding to at least one cutting cycle; (3) to ensure long-term viability, a minimum harvestable density for commercial-sized trees should be determined for each species.