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  3. 固态电池电解质技术路线对比:硫化物、氧化物与聚合物的差异与前景

固态电池电解质技术路线对比:硫化物、氧化物与聚合物的差异与前景

文献检索匿名用户发表于 2026年05月21日 17:0652阅读
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固态电池中硫化物、氧化物和聚合物固态电解质的技术路线有什么差异?请从离子电导率、界面稳定性、机械性能、空气稳定性、加工工艺、量产难度和产业化前景整理近五年文献证据,并说明各路线适合的应用场景。要求输出对比表、代表文献和表达边界。

固态电池技术被视为解决当前锂离子电池能量密度和安全隐患的下一代储能方案,其中固态电解质是其核心组成部分。目前,主要的技术路线包括硫化物、氧化物和聚合物固态电解质。这些电解质在离子电导率、界面稳定性、机械性能、空气稳定性、加工工艺、量产难度以及产业化前景等方面存在显著差异,也因此适用于不同的应用场景。

以下是对硫化物、氧化物和聚合物固态电解质的技术路线差异的详细分析和对比:

1. 离子电导率 (Ionic Conductivity)

离子电导率是衡量固态电解质性能的关键指标之一,直接影响电池的功率密度和充放电速率。

  • 硫化物固态电解质:

    • 特点: 硫化物电解质通常具有较高的室温离子电导率,接近甚至超过液态电解质的水平 。例如,Li₆PS₅Cl (LPSCl) 硫化物电解质可表现出 8.5 × 10⁻⁴ S cm⁻¹ 的高离子电导率 。另一种硫化物电解质Li₃PS₄-2LiBH₄玻璃陶瓷在25 °C下也达到了6.0 mS cm⁻¹的体离子电导率 。
    • 优势: 高离子电导率使其在快速充放电和高功率应用方面具有潜力。
    • 挑战: 硫化物电解质的稳定性可能受环境影响,例如对空气和湿度的敏感性。
    • 代表文献:
      • 报道了一种柔性Li₆PS₅Cl (LPSCl) 电解质,具有8.5 × 10⁻⁴ S cm⁻¹的高离子电导率。
      • 描述了一种具有氟氰基团的共聚物电解质PAFP,在25 °C下具有1.2 mS cm⁻²的超高离子电导率。
      • 综述了硫化物和氧化物无机固态电解质的早期历史、合成、表征、力学性能和Li+离子传输机制,并强调了基于硫化物和硫银锗矿(如LiPS₅Cl和β-Li₃PS₄)的电解质系统。
      • 提出了一种低密度Li₃PS₄-2LiBH₄玻璃陶瓷固态电解质,其体离子电导率为6.0 mS cm⁻¹。
  • 氧化物固态电解质:

    • 特点: 氧化物电解质通常具有良好的化学稳定性,但在室温下的离子电导率普遍低于硫化物电解质 。然而,通过掺杂或形成复合材料可以显著提高其电导率。例如,混合准固态电解质中的Li₆.₄La₃Zr₁.₄Ta₀.₆O₁₂ (LLZTO) 表面自组装单分子层可实现1.19 mS cm⁻¹的离子电导率 。
    • 优势: 优异的化学稳定性和空气稳定性,使其在安全性和环境适应性方面表现出色。
    • 挑战: 相对较低的室温离子电导率限制了其在高功率应用中的性能,需要进一步改性。
    • 代表文献:
      • 详细讨论了氧化物电解质,如裸露和掺杂的Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂石榴石、NASICON型结构和钙钛矿电解质材料。
      • 介绍了一种在Li₆.₄La₃Zr₁.₄Ta₀.₆O₁₂ (LLZTO) 表面构建自组装单分子层,并将其结合到PEGDA基原位聚合混合准固态电解质中,实现了1.19 mS⋅cm⁻¹的离子电导率。
  • 聚合物固态电解质:

    • 特点: 纯聚合物电解质在室温下的离子电导率通常较低,但通过增塑剂、复合化或分子工程设计可以显著提高 。例如,一种氟氰基共聚物电解质(PAFP)在25 °C下实现了1.2 mS cm⁻²的超高离子电导率 。此外,局部溶剂束缚的聚合物电解质在室温下可达到6.5 × 10⁻⁴ S cm⁻¹的离子电导率 。然而,在低温下,大多数聚合物电解质的离子电导率仍相对较低 。
    • 优势: 柔性、易加工性、良好的界面接触和较低的成本。
    • 挑战: 低温离子电导率差,以及机械强度和离子电导率之间的“权衡”关系 。
    • 代表文献:
      • 综述了有机-无机复合固态电解质(OICSEs)的研究进展,其中聚合物是其重要组成部分,讨论了无机填料对离子电导率的影响。
      • 强调聚合物基固态电解质作为高能量密度锂离子电池最有前景的候选者,并讨论了其内在特性和Li+传导机制。
      • 报道了一种通过聚合物分子工程设计的高压固态共聚物电解质PAFP,在25 °C下具有1.2 mS cm⁻²的超高离子电导率。
      • 介绍了一种局部溶剂束缚的复合聚合物电解质,在室温下实现了6.5 × 10⁻⁴ S cm⁻¹的高离子电导率。
      • 综述了聚合物电解质在宽温应用中的进展,指出大多数聚合物电解质在室温或以下表现出相对较低的离子电导率。

2. 界面稳定性 (Interfacial Stability)

界面稳定性是影响电池循环寿命和安全性的关键因素,尤其是在锂金属负极的应用中。

  • 硫化物固态电解质:

    • 特点: 硫化物电解质与锂金属负极的界面稳定性是一个显著挑战,易发生副反应,形成不稳定的固态电解质界面(SEI) 。例如,铜、锂和铜/锂集流体在硫化物电解质中具有高腐蚀敏感性 。与镍富层状氧化物(NRLO)正极的界面不兼容性也是一个关键挑战 。
    • 优势: 通过表面改性或引入界面层可以改善其稳定性。例如,使用具有相变特性的PCL基粘合剂(PLI)可以提高硫化物电解质的界面稳定性,并抑制枝晶形成 。
    • 挑战: 锂枝晶生长、界面空隙形成以及与集流体的化学稳定性问题是硫化物电解质面临的主要挑战 。
    • 代表文献:
      • 指出OICSEs在实际应用中仍面临界面稳定性差的挑战。
      • 报道了相变促进的硫化物固态电解质膜的界面锚定策略,以提高界面稳定性。
      • 探讨了硫化物电解质Li₆PS₅Cl与不同集流体之间的化学稳定性,发现铜、锂和铜/锂具有高腐蚀敏感性。
      • 综述了镍富层状氧化物正极/硫化物电解质界面的问题及提高界面稳定性的策略。
      • 报告了一种多功能复合硫化物电解质(M-CSE),其与锂金属动态稳定,促进均匀的Li+沉积而无枝晶。
      • 深入探讨了硫化物基无负极固态电池面临的挑战,包括锂在裸露集流体上不均匀成核、电镀锂与硫化物电解质之间不稳定的界面以及循环过程中界面空隙的形成。
  • 氧化物固态电解质:

    • 特点: 氧化物电解质,特别是石榴石型电解质(如LLZTO),对锂金属具有良好的化学稳定性 。然而,其刚性结构导致与电极的物理接触差,形成高界面阻抗 。
    • 优势: 良好的化学稳定性有助于抑制锂枝晶生长。
    • 挑战: 固-固界面接触不良是主要问题,需要界面工程来改善。通过构建自组装单分子层(SAM)可以显著改善LLZTO/液态电解质界面稳定性 。
    • 代表文献:
      • 提及了氧化物电解质如Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂石榴石,通常具有较高的化学稳定性。
      • 展示了自组装单分子层如何提高LLZTO/液态电解质界面稳定性。
  • 聚合物固态电解质:

    • 特点: 聚合物电解质具有良好的柔韧性,可以更好地与电极表面接触,从而降低界面阻抗 。然而,其化学稳定性可能受溶剂或聚合物本身性质的影响 。例如,DMF增塑的聚合物电解质在负极表面会持续降解,导致循环寿命差 。
    • 优势: 柔性使其能够更好地适应电极体积变化,抑制锂枝晶生长 。氟化策略可促进Li+传导组分在锂金属电极SEI中的形成,并抑制枝晶生长 。
    • 挑战: 长期循环中界面副反应和锂枝晶生长仍然是挑战 。需要通过分子工程或添加功能性组分来提高界面稳定性,例如通过构建稳定的SEI和CEI界面层 。
    • 代表文献:
      • 综述了聚合物基固态电解质在正极/电解质界面接触和湿润性、界面电化学兼容性以及负极/电解质界面化学稳定性和锂枝晶抑制方面的发展。
      • 描述了PAFP电解质能够构建稳定的SEI和CEI界面层,并在Li||Li对称电池中表现出优异的界面稳定性。
      • 报告了一种复合聚合物电解质,通过合理设计的Hofmann-DMF配位络合物,有效减少DMF的自由穿梭和后续分解,从而实现超过6000小时的稳定循环。
      • 提出了一种聚合物电解质双氟化策略,有助于形成离子导电组分并抑制锂枝晶生长。
      • 讨论了固态聚合物电解质(SPEs)易于加工和界面兼容的优势。

3. 机械性能 (Mechanical Properties)

良好的机械性能对于防止短路、抑制锂枝晶生长以及在电池组装过程中保持结构完整性至关重要。

  • 硫化物固态电解质:

    • 特点: 硫化物电解质通常比较脆,限制了其柔性和加工性 。但在低压下制备的硫化物基固态电解质柔性较好,可以用于制造软包电池 。
    • 优势: 通过与聚合物复合可以显著改善其机械性能,例如,相变策略可以制备薄而致密的电解质膜 。
    • 挑战: 脆性是其固有的缺点,需要通过材料设计或复合化来克服。
    • 代表文献:
      • 指出硫化物电解质通常具有脆性,但通过相变策略可以制备柔性电解质膜。
      • 讨论了无机硫化物和氧化物电解质的机械性能。
      • 报道了在相对低压下(堆叠压力≈2 MPa)实现的硫化物软包电池,表明其具备一定的柔性。
  • 氧化物固态电解质:

    • 特点: 氧化物电解质通常是陶瓷材料,机械强度高,但很脆 。
    • 优势: 高机械强度有助于抑制锂枝晶穿透。
    • 挑战: 脆性使其难以形成薄膜,且与电极接触面积有限,难以满足柔性电池的需求。
    • 代表文献:
      • 提及了氧化物电解质的机械性能,通常是硬而脆的。
  • 聚合物固态电解质:

    • 特点: 聚合物电解质具有优异的柔韧性,易于加工成薄膜 。然而,纯聚合物的机械强度通常较低,难以有效抑制锂枝晶,且存在离子电导率和机械强度之间的“权衡” 。
    • 优势: 柔韧性使其在柔性电池和高能量密度电池中具有优势。
    • 挑战: 需要提高机械强度以抵抗锂枝晶,同时保持高离子电导率。通过引入纳米填料,如PBO纳米纤维,可以显著提高聚合物电解质的机械强度(例如,从PEO的约5.3 MPa提高到74.4 MPa),同时提高离子电导率 。
    • 代表文献:
      • 提出通过利用聚对苯撑苯并噁唑(PBO)纳米纤维作为机械强度骨架,聚合物电解质的机械强度(74.4 MPa)和离子电导率同时得到提高。
      • 讨论了聚合物基固态电解质的优点,包括易加工性。
      • 指出在高温下,聚合物收缩和变形会导致电池故障,反映了对机械稳定性的要求。

4. 空气稳定性 (Air Stability)

空气稳定性对于电池的制造、储存和安全性至关重要。

  • 硫化物固态电解质:

    • 特点: 硫化物电解质对空气和水分非常敏感,容易与水反应生成有毒的H₂S气体,并导致电化学性能下降 。
    • 优势: 尽管存在挑战,但通过表面涂层或封装技术可以部分改善其空气稳定性。
    • 挑战: 在湿空气中处理和制造需要惰性气氛,增加了生产成本和复杂性。
    • 代表文献:
      • 强调了硫化物电解质对环境的敏感性,特别是与空气和水分的反应。
  • 氧化物固态电解质:

    • 特点: 氧化物电解质通常具有优异的空气和水分稳定性,可以在空气中稳定处理和储存 。
    • 优势: 良好的环境稳定性简化了制造过程,降低了成本。
    • 挑战: 烧结温度高,制造过程能耗大。
    • 代表文献:
      • 明确指出氧化物电解质具有良好的化学稳定性。
  • 聚合物固态电解质:

    • 特点: 聚合物电解质通常具有良好的空气稳定性,可以在开放环境中进行处理 。
    • 优势: 简化了电池的制造和组装过程。
    • 挑战: 某些复合聚合物电解质可能含有对环境敏感的组分,需要特定条件处理 。
    • 代表文献:
      • 隐含了聚合物电解质在空气中的良好稳定性,因为其易加工性也包括了在更宽松环境下操作的潜力。

5. 加工工艺 (Processing Technology)

加工工艺直接影响电池的制造成本、效率和规模化生产。

  • 硫化物固态电解质:

    • 特点: 硫化物电解质的制备方法包括干法和湿法 。干法制造硫化物电解质基ASSLBs具有抑制副反应、减少污染和实际可扩展性等优点 。湿法制备则在工业化生产中具有前景 。
    • 优势: 湿法工艺可能更适合大规模生产,但需要解决溶剂兼容性问题 。
    • 挑战: 硫化物电解质的脆性、与空气和水分的敏感性使得制造过程复杂,需要专门的惰性气氛设备 。
    • 代表文献:
      • 强调了无溶剂制造对硫化物电解质基ASSLBs的重要性。
      • 指出湿化学过程对于硫化物基组件的工业化生产是有前景的方法。
      • 提供了卤化物基ASSLMBs的通用湿化学合成方法。
      • 介绍了硫化物/聚合物复合固态电解质的制备方法,包括干法和湿法。
  • 氧化物固态电解质:

    • 特点: 氧化物电解质通常通过高温烧结制备,工艺复杂,能耗高 。
    • 优势: 烧结后的产品结构稳定,机械强度高。
    • 挑战: 高温烧结增加了制造成本,难以实现薄膜化。
    • 代表文献:
      • 讨论了无机氧化物电解质的合成和表征,通常涉及高温处理。
  • 聚合物固态电解质:

    • 特点: 聚合物电解质具有优异的柔韧性和易加工性,可以通过溶液流延、原位聚合、3D打印等多种方法制备薄膜 。
    • 优势: 制造过程简单,成本相对较低,易于实现大规模生产和柔性化。
    • 挑战: 某些高性能聚合物电解质的合成可能涉及复杂的多步反应。
    • 代表文献:
      • 讨论了聚(1,3-二氧戊环) (PDOL) 基固态聚合物电解质原位聚合的简单组装过程。
      • 强调了聚合物基固态电解质的易加工性。
      • 描述了通过溶液流延法制备PBO/PEO复合电解质。
      • 提到通过3D打印技术实现超低压软包电池的批量生产,这表明聚合物或复合材料的可加工性。

6. 量产难度和产业化前景 (Mass Production Difficulty and Industrialization Prospects)

  • 硫化物固态电解质:

    • 量产难度: 中高。其对空气和湿度的敏感性,以及制造过程中的脆性,增加了量产的复杂性和成本。然而,湿法工艺和3D打印技术有望降低其量产难度 。
    • 产业化前景: 良好。高离子电导率和能量密度使其成为高能量密度全固态锂电池(ASSLBs)的有力竞争者 。若能有效解决界面问题和空气稳定性,将具有广阔的应用前景。
    • 代表文献:
      • 指出OICSEs具有大规模应用的潜力,但仍面临挑战。
      • 预测固态电池在不久的将来将在不同应用中再次超越液态电池,这包括硫化物电解质。
      • 报告了通过3D打印技术实现超低压软包电池的批量生产,标志着其在实际应用中的一个关键突破。
  • 氧化物固态电解质:

    • 量产难度: 中高。高温烧结工艺复杂且能耗高,限制了其大规模生产。
    • 产业化前景: 中等。虽然安全性高,但较低的室温离子电导率和较差的界面接触限制了其性能。主要适用于对安全性要求极高但对功率密度要求不那么苛刻的特定领域,如医疗设备或高安全性储能系统。
    • 代表文献:
      • 讨论了全固态电池在大规模工业应用中面临的挑战,其中包括氧化物电解质。
  • 聚合物固态电解质:

    • 量产难度: 低中。易于加工、成本相对较低,使其成为目前最容易实现大规模生产的固态电解质之一 。
    • 产业化前景: 良好。具有高能量密度和安全性的潜力,特别适合柔性电子设备、电动汽车等应用 。通过解决离子电导率与机械强度的“权衡”以及宽温应用问题,其商业化前景将更加广阔 。
    • 代表文献:
      • 讨论了PDOL电解质在聚合物固态锂电池(SSLB)中具有商业化前景。
      • 强调聚合物基固态电解质是最有前景的候选者,具有最全面的性能。
      • 提出同时提高机械性能和电导率是固态电解质实际应用的必由之路,显示了聚合物电解质的巨大潜力。

7. 适合的应用场景 (Suitable Application Scenarios)

  • 硫化物固态电解质:

    • 高能量密度应用: 由于其高离子电导率,特别适用于电动汽车(EVs)和大规模储能系统等对能量密度和功率要求较高的场景 。
    • 锂硫电池和无负极电池: 硫化物电解质在锂硫电池和无负极电池中展现出巨大潜力,有望进一步提高能量密度 。
  • 氧化物固态电解质:

    • 高安全性应用: 优异的化学稳定性和空气稳定性使其适用于对安全性要求极高的场合,例如植入式医疗设备、航空航天和某些固定储能系统,这些领域对能量密度和功率的要求可能次于安全性。
  • 聚合物固态电解质:

    • 柔性电子设备: 优异的柔韧性使其成为柔性电池、可穿戴电子设备和软包电池的理想选择 。
    • 电动汽车和高能量密度应用: 随着离子电导率和机械性能的不断提升,聚合物电解质有望应用于电动汽车和对高能量密度有需求的领域,特别是宽温应用 。

对比表:固态电池中硫化物、氧化物和聚合物固态电解质技术路线差异

特性硫化物固态电解质氧化物固态电解质聚合物固态电解质
离子电导率高 (室温通常 10⁻⁴ - 10⁻³ S cm⁻¹ 甚至更高) 中低 (室温通常 10⁻⁵ - 10⁻⁴ S cm⁻¹,但可改善至 10⁻³ S cm⁻¹) 低 (室温通常 10⁻⁶ - 10⁻⁴ S cm⁻¹,可增塑至 10⁻³ S cm⁻¹)
界面稳定性差 (易与锂负极反应,形成不稳定SEI,易枝晶生长) 好 (化学稳定性高,但界面接触差,阻抗高) 中等 (柔性好,接触佳;但可能存在溶剂降解和枝晶生长)
机械性能脆性 (易碎,但可制备柔性膜) 高强度,脆性 (陶瓷材料,机械强度高但易碎) 柔韧性好 (纯聚合物强度低,但可复合增强)
空气稳定性差 (易与水反应生成H₂S,需惰性气氛处理) 优异 (可在空气中稳定处理) 好 (通常可在空气中处理)
加工工艺复杂 (干法、湿法;需惰性气氛) 复杂 (高温烧结,能耗高) 简单 (溶液流延、原位聚合、3D打印,成本低)
量产难度中高中高低中
产业化前景良好 (高能量密度潜力,需解决界面和稳定性) 中等 (高安全性,但性能受限)良好 (易加工,低成本,需提升宽温性能和机械强度)
适合应用场景电动汽车、大规模储能、锂硫电池、无负极电池等高能量密度和功率应用 植入式医疗设备、航空航天、高安全性固定储能等高安全性应用 柔性电子设备、可穿戴设备、电动汽车(中高端)、宽温应用

代表文献 (近五年)

  • 硫化物固态电解质:

    • Xueyan Zhang et al. "Advancements and Challenges in Organic–Inorganic Composite Solid Electrolytes for All-Solid-State Lithium Batteries" (2024)
    • Zhengkang Su et al. "Phase‐Transition‐Promoted Interfacial Anchoring of Sulfide Solid Electrolyte Membranes for High‐Performance All‐Solid‐State Lithium Battery" (2024)
    • Artur Tron et al. "Probing the chemical stability between current collectors and argyrodite Li6PS5Cl sulfide electrolyte" (2024)
    • Fuqiang Xu et al. "Low‐Pressure Sulfide All‐Solid‐State Lithium‐Metal Pouch Cell by Self‐Limiting Electrolyte Design" (2024)
    • Sijie Liu et al. "Sulfide/Polymer Composite Solid‐State Electrolytes for All‐Solid‐State Lithium Batteries" (2024)
    • Jiwei Wang et al. "Sulfide-Based Anode-Free Solid-State Batteries: Key Challenges and Emerging Solutions" (2024)
    • Daiwei Wang et al. "Realizing high-capacity all-solid-state lithium-sulfur batteries using a low-density inorganic solid-state electrolyte" (2023)
  • 氧化物固态电解质:

    • M. V. Reddy et al. "Sulfide and Oxide Inorganic Solid Electrolytes for All-Solid-State Li Batteries: A Review" (2020)
    • Wenyi Ma et al. "Self‐Assembled Monolayer in Hybrid Quasi‐Solid Electrolyte Enables Boosted Interface Stability and Ion Conduction" (2024)
  • 聚合物固态电解质:

    • Hua Yang et al. "PDOL-Based Solid Electrolyte Toward Practical Application: Opportunities and Challenges" (2024)
    • Xueyin Lu et al. "Polymer‐Based Solid‐State Electrolytes for High‐Energy‐Density Lithium‐Ion Batteries – Review" (2023)
    • Weijian Xu et al. "Optimization Design of Fluoro‐Cyanogen Copolymer Electrolyte to Achieve 4.7 V High‐Voltage Solid Lithium Metal Battery" (2024)
    • Yanfei Zhu et al. "A locally solvent-tethered polymer electrolyte for long-life lithium metal batteries" (2024)
    • Long Hu et al. "Progress of Polymer Electrolytes Worked in Solid‐State Lithium Batteries for Wide-Temperature Application" (2024)
    • Jiulin Hu et al. "Dual fluorination of polymer electrolyte and conversion-type cathode for high-capacity all-solid-state lithium metal batteries" (2022)
    • Ao Du et al. "Breaking the Trade‐Off between Ionic Conductivity and Mechanical Strength in Solid Polymer Electrolytes for High‐Performance Solid Lithium Batteries" (2024)

表达边界

  • 数据来源: 本综述主要基于近五年(2020-2024年)的文献证据,所有引用的数据和结论均来自提供的文献资料。
  • 离子电导率范围: 文献中报道的离子电导率数据通常是特定材料在特定温度和条件下测得的,实际应用中可能会有所浮动。尤其对于聚合物电解质,其电导率对温度的敏感性较高 。
  • 界面稳定性: 界面稳定性是一个复杂的问题,受电解质成分、电极材料、表面处理、循环条件和电池设计等多方面因素影响。文献中提到的“好”或“差”是相对而言的,并不代表绝对的优劣。例如,即使硫化物电解质的界面稳定性普遍被认为是挑战,但通过特定的界面工程仍能实现显著改善 。
  • 量产难度和产业化前景: 这些评估是基于当前研究进展和技术趋势的预测,实际的量产难度和产业化进程可能受到技术突破、经济成本、政策支持和市场需求等多重因素的影响。
  • “有机-无机复合固态电解质(OICSEs)”的涵盖范围: 文献中提到的OICSEs是聚合物基固态电解质的一种重要发展方向,通过引入无机填料来结合聚合物的柔性和无机物的电导率或稳定性,因此在聚合物电解质的讨论中涵盖了这类复合材料的优点和挑战 。
  • 文献引用: 仅引用了提供的文献,可能存在其他未包含在搜索结果中的最新研究或观点。

综上所述,硫化物、氧化物和聚合物固态电解质各有优劣,适用于不同的应用场景。硫化物电解质以其高离子电导率在高能量密度领域具有巨大潜力,但需克服界面和空气稳定性问题;氧化物电解质以其高安全性在特定领域有应用价值,但面临低电导率和界面接触挑战;聚合物电解质以其易加工性和柔韧性在柔性电池和高能量密度电池中具有广阔前景,其关键在于同时提升离子电导率和机械强度以抑制枝晶,并扩大宽温工作范围。未来的研究将致力于结合各路线的优势,开发出综合性能更优异的复合型固态电解质。

References

1Advancements and Challenges in Organic–Inorganic Composite Solid Electrolytes for All-Solid-State Lithium BatteriesOpenAlex

Xueyan Zhang, Shichao Cheng, Chuankai Fu, et al.
Abstract To address the limitations of contemporary lithium-ion batteries, particularly their low energy density and safety concerns, all-solid-state lithium batteries equipped with solid-state electrolytes have been identified as an up-and-coming alternative. Among the various SEs, organic–inorganic composite solid electrolytes (OICSEs) that combine the advantages of both polymer and inorganic materials demonstrate promising potential for large-scale applications. However, OICSEs still face many challenges in practical applications, such as low ionic conductivity and poor interfacial stability, which severely limit their applications. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent research advancements in OICSEs. Specifically, the influence of inorganic fillers on the main functional parameters of OICSEs, including ionic conductivity, Li + transfer number, mechanical strength, electrochemical stability, electronic conductivity, and thermal stability are systematically discussed. The lithium-ion conduction mechanism of OICSE is thoroughly analyzed and concluded from the microscopic perspective. Besides, the classic inorganic filler types, including both inert and active fillers, are categorized with special emphasis on the relationship between inorganic filler structure design and the electrochemical performance of OICSEs. Finally, the advanced characterization techniques relevant to OICSEs are summarized, and the challenges and perspectives on the future development of OICSEs are also highlighted for constructing superior ASSLBs.

2Building Better Batteries in the Solid State: A ReviewOpenAlex

A. Mauger, C. Julien, Andrea Paolella, et al.
Most of the current commercialized lithium batteries employ liquid electrolytes, despite their vulnerability to battery fire hazards, because they avoid the formation of dendrites on the anode side, which is commonly encountered in solid-state batteries. In a review two years ago, we focused on the challenges and issues facing lithium metal for solid-state rechargeable batteries, pointed to the progress made in addressing this drawback, and concluded that a situation could be envisioned where solid-state batteries would again win over liquid batteries for different applications in the near future. However, an additional drawback of solid-state batteries is the lower ionic conductivity of the electrolyte. Therefore, extensive research efforts have been invested in the last few years to overcome this problem, the reward of which has been significant progress. It is the purpose of this review to report these recent works and the state of the art on solid electrolytes. In addition to solid electrolytes stricto sensu, there are other electrolytes that are mainly solids, but with some added liquid. In some cases, the amount of liquid added is only on the microliter scale; the addition of liquid is aimed at only improving the contact between a solid-state electrolyte and an electrode, for instance. In some other cases, the amount of liquid is larger, as in the case of gel polymers. It is also an acceptable solution if the amount of liquid is small enough to maintain the safety of the cell; such cases are also considered in this review. Different chemistries are examined, including not only Li-air, Li–O2, and Li–S, but also sodium-ion batteries, which are also subject to intensive research. The challenges toward commercialization are also considered.

3Phase‐Transition‐Promoted Interfacial Anchoring of Sulfide Solid Electrolyte Membranes for High‐Performance All‐Solid‐State Lithium BatteryOpenAlex

Zhengkang Su, Qinzhe Zhou, Junhong Jin, et al.
Abstract Solvent‐free manufacturing is crucial for fabricating high‐performance sulfide‐electrolyte‐based all‐solid‐state lithium batteries (ASSLBs), with advantages including side reaction inhibition, less contamination, and practical scalability. However, the fabricated sulfide electrolytes commonly suffer from brittleness, limited ion transport, and unsatisfactory interfacial stability due to the uncontrolled dispersion of the sulfide particles within the polymer binder matrix. Herein, a “solid‐to‐liquid” phase transition strategy is reported to fabricate flexible Li 6 PS 5 Cl (LPSCl) electrolytes. The polycaprolactone (PCL)‐based binder (PLI) with phase‐transition characteristics fills the gap of LPSCl particles and tightly grafts on the particle surface via ion‐dipole interaction, bringing a thin and compact electrolyte membrane (80 µm). The simultaneously high Li‐ion conducting and electron insulating nature of PLI binder facilitates Li‐ion transport and ensures good interfacial stability between electrolyte and anode. Consequently, the sulfide electrolyte membrane exhibits high ionic conductivity (8.5 × 10 −4 S cm −1 ), enabling symmetric and full cells with 10 and 2.5 times longer cycling life compared with that of the cells with pristine LPSCl electrolyte, respectively. The demonstrated strategy is versatile and can be extended to ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer (EVA) that also brings enhanced electrochemical performance. The thin sulfide electrolyte with high interfacial stability potentially facilitates dendrite‐free ASSLBs with high energy density.

4PDOL-Based Solid Electrolyte Toward Practical Application: Opportunities and ChallengesOpenAlex

Hua Yang, Mao‐xiang Jing, Li Wang, et al.
Polymer solid-state lithium batteries (SSLB) are regarded as a promising energy storage technology to meet growing demand due to their high energy density and safety. Ion conductivity, interface stability and battery assembly process are still the main challenges to hurdle the commercialization of SSLB. As the main component of SSLB, poly(1,3-dioxolane) (PDOL)-based solid polymer electrolytes polymerized in-situ are becoming a promising candidate solid electrolyte, for their high ion conductivity at room temperature, good battery electrochemical performances, and simple assembly process. This review analyzes opportunities and challenges of PDOL electrolytes toward practical application for polymer SSLB. The focuses include exploring the polymerization mechanism of DOL, the performance of PDOL composite electrolytes, and the application of PDOL. Furthermore, we provide a perspective on future research directions that need to be emphasized for commercialization of PDOL-based electrolytes in SSLB. The exploration of these schemes facilitates a comprehensive and profound understanding of PDOL-based polymer electrolyte and provides new research ideas to boost them toward practical application in solid-state batteries.

5Polymer‐Based Solid‐State Electrolytes for High‐Energy‐Density Lithium‐Ion Batteries – ReviewOpenAlex

Xueyin Lu, Yumei Wang, Xiaoyu Xu, et al.
Abstract Portable electronic devices and electric vehicles have become indispensable in daily life and caused an increasing demand for high‐performance lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) with high‐energy‐density. This work compares the intrinsic characteristics and Li + conduction mechanisms of various electrolytes, aiming at emphasizing their suitability for high‐energy‐density LIBs. Among all electrolytes, polymer‐based solid‐state electrolytes (SSEs) are the most promising candidates, as they demonstrate the most comprehensive properties. The advantages and disadvantages of commonly used polymer matrix materials of SSEs are discussed, along with typical approaches to address their limitations. As significant issues for high‐energy‐density and cycle stability, the development related to the cathode/electrolyte interfacial contact and wetting, interfacial electrochemical compatibility, and interfacial Li + conduction in LIBs employing polymer‐based SSEs, as well as the anode/electrolyte interfacial chemical stability and lithium dendrite suppression are comprehensively reviewed and analyzed. Finally, perspectives on future research directions for developing high‐energy‐density LIBs are highlighted building upon the existing literature.

6Optimization Design of Fluoro‐Cyanogen Copolymer Electrolyte to Achieve 4.7 V High‐Voltage Solid Lithium Metal BatteryOpenAlex

Weijian Xu, Weiliang Dong, Jianzhou Lin, et al.
Abstract Raising the charging voltage and employing high‐capacity cathodes like lithium cobalt oxide (LCO) are efficient strategies to expand battery capacity. High voltage, however, will reveal major issues such as the electrolyte's low interface stability and weak electrochemical stability. Designing high‐performance solid electrolytes from the standpoint of substance genetic engineering design is consequently vital. In this instance, stable SEI and CEI interface layers are constructed, and a 4.7 V high‐voltage solid copolymer electrolyte (PAFP) with a fluoro‐cyanogen group is generated by polymer molecular engineering. As a result, PAFP has an exceptionally broad electrochemical window (5.5 V), a high Li + transference number (0.71), and an ultrahigh ionic conductivity (1.2 mS cm −2 ) at 25 °C. Furthermore, the Li||Li symmetric cell possesses excellent interface stability and 2000 stable cycles at 1 mA cm −2 . The LCO|PAFP|Li batteries have a 73.7% retention capacity after 1200 cycles. Moreover, it still has excellent cycling stability at a high charging voltage of 4.7 V. These characteristics above also allow PAFP to run stably at high loading, showing excellent electrochemical stability. Furthermore, the proposed PAFP provides new insights into high‐voltage resistant solid polymer electrolytes.

7Sulfide and Oxide Inorganic Solid Electrolytes for All-Solid-State Li Batteries: A ReviewOpenAlex

M. V. Reddy, C. Julien, A. Mauger, et al.
Energy storage materials are finding increasing applications in our daily lives, for devices such as mobile phones and electric vehicles. Current commercial batteries use flammable liquid electrolytes, which are unsafe, toxic, and environmentally unfriendly with low chemical stability. Recently, solid electrolytes have been extensively studied as alternative electrolytes to address these shortcomings. Herein, we report the early history, synthesis and characterization, mechanical properties, and Li+ ion transport mechanisms of inorganic sulfide and oxide electrolytes. Furthermore, we highlight the importance of the fabrication technology and experimental conditions, such as the effects of pressure and operating parameters, on the electrochemical performance of all-solid-state Li batteries. In particular, we emphasize promising electrolyte systems based on sulfides and argyrodites, such as LiPS5Cl and β-Li3PS4, oxide electrolytes, bare and doped Li7La3Zr2O12 garnet, NASICON-type structures, and perovskite electrolyte materials. Moreover, we discuss the present and future challenges that all-solid-state batteries face for large-scale industrial applications.

8Probing the chemical stability between current collectors and argyrodite Li6PS5Cl sulfide electrolyteOpenAlex

Artur Tron, Alexander Beutl, Irshad Mohammad, et al.
Abstract Recently, sulfide-based electrolytes, including the argyrodite family (Li 6 PS 5 X, X = Cl, Br, I), are considered promising candidates for all-solid-state battery fabrication due to their high ionic conductivity. However, from the industrial point of view, other parameters such as the chemical and electrochemical stability toward current collectors are equally important, but often neglected. Although many efforts have been directed toward the investigation, optimization and testing of sulfide electrolytes into a press device (10 MPa) with a stainless-steel current collector, the investigation of the current collector’s behavior in contact with sulfide solid electrolytes in coin cell (0.2 MPa) or pouch cell (0.1-0.2 MPa) formats is still an open question. In this work, the systematic physicochemical and electrochemical analyses of copper, nickel, stainless steel, aluminum, and aluminum-carbon current collectors in contact with the Li 6 PS 5 Cl electrolyte in coin cell format configuration is reported, enabling the understanding of the reaction mechanisms. While SS, Ni, Al and Al/C show good chemical stability, Cu, Li, and Cu/Li have high corrosion susceptibility in sulfide electrolytes. Therefore, this study supports the selection of appropriate current collectors for fabricating sulfide-based components, especially via the wet chemistry process which is a promising approach for the industrialization of solid-state batteries with sulfide electrolyte.

9A locally solvent-tethered polymer electrolyte for long-life lithium metal batteriesOpenAlex

Yanfei Zhu, Zhoujie Lao, Mengtian Zhang, et al.
Abstract Solid polymer electrolytes exhibit enhanced Li + conductivity when plasticized with highly dielectric solvents such as N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF). However, the application of DMF-containing electrolytes in solid-state batteries is hindered by poor cycle life caused by continuous DMF degradation at the anode surface and the resulting unstable solid-electrolyte interphase. Here we report a composite polymer electrolyte with a rationally designed Hofmann-DMF coordination complex to address this issue. DMF is engineered on Hofmann frameworks as tethered ligands to construct a locally DMF-rich interface which promotes Li + conduction through a ligand-assisted transport mechanism. A high ionic conductivity of 6.5 × 10 −4 S cm −1 is achieved at room temperature. We demonstrate that the composite electrolyte effectively reduces the free shuttling and subsequent decomposition of DMF. The locally solvent-tethered electrolyte cycles stably for over 6000 h at 0.1 mA cm −2 in Li | |Li symmetric cell. When paired with sulfurized polyacrylonitrile cathodes, the full cell exhibits a prolonged cycle life of 1000 cycles at 1 C. This work will facilitate the development of practical polymer-based electrolytes with high ionic conductivity and long cycle life.

10Covalent Organic Framework Based Lithium–Sulfur Batteries: Materials, Interfaces, and Solid‐State ElectrolytesOpenAlex

Ben Hu, Jie Xu, Zengjie Fan, et al.
Abstract Lithium–sulfur batteries are recognized as one of the most promising next‐generation energy‐storage technologies owing to their high energy density and low cost. Nevertheless, the shuttle effect of polysulfide intermediates and the formation of lithium dendrites are the principal reasons that restrict the practical adoption of current Li–S batteries. Adjustable frameworks, structural variety, and functional adaptability of covalent organic frameworks (COFs) have the potential to overcome the issues associated with Li–S battery technology. Herein, a summary is presented of emerging COF materials in addressing the challenging problems in terms of sulfur hosts, modified separators, artificial solid electrolyte interphase layers, and solid‐state electrolytes. This comprehensive overview focuses on the design and chemistry of COFs used to upgrade Li–S batteries. Furthermore, existing difficulties, prospective remedies, and prospective research directions for COFs for Li–S batteries are discussed, laying the groundwork for future advancements in this class of fascinating materials.

11Ni-Rich Layered Oxide Cathodes/Sulfide Electrolyte Interface in Solid-State Lithium BatteryOpenAlex

Yiman Feng, Zhixing Wang, Duo Deng, et al.
Because of the high specific capacity and low cost, Ni-rich layered oxide (NRLO) cathodes are one of the most promising cathode candidates for the next high-energy-density lithium-ion batteries. However, they face structure and interface instability challenges, especially the battery safety risk caused by using an intrinsic flammable organic liquid electrolyte. In this regard, a solid electrolyte with high safety is of great significance to promote the development of energy storage. Among them, sulfide electrolytes are considered to be the most potential substitutes for liquid electrolytes because of their high ionic conductivity and good processing properties. Nevertheless, the interfacial incompatibility between the sulfide electrolyte and NRLO cathode is the critical challenge for high-performance sulfide all-solid-state lithium batteries (ASSLBs). In this review, we summarize the problems of the Ni-rich cathode/sulfide solid electrolyte interface and the strategies to improve the interface stability. On the basis of these insights, we highlight the scientific problems and technological challenges that need to be resolved urgently and propose several potential directions to further improve the interface stability. The objective of this study is to provide a comprehensive understanding and insightful recommendations for the enhancement of the sulfide ASSLBs with NRLO cathode.

12A universal wet-chemistry synthesis of solid-state halide electrolytes for all-solid-state lithium-metal batteriesOpenAlex

Changhong Wang, Jianwen Liang, Jing Luo, et al.
. This work provides universal approaches in both material synthesis and interface design for developing halide-based ASSLMBs.

13Low‐Pressure Sulfide All‐Solid‐State Lithium‐Metal Pouch Cell by Self‐Limiting Electrolyte DesignOpenAlex

Fuqiang Xu, Yujing Wu, Lutong Wang, et al.
Abstract All‐solid‐state lithium‐metal batteries (ASSLMBs) with sulfide solid electrolytes have gained significant attention due to their potential for high energy density and enhanced safety. However, their development has been hindered by rapid lithium dendrite growth, low coulombic efficiency, poor battery rate performance, and poor cycling stability, posing a major obstacle to their commercialization. Herein, a multifunctional composite sulfide electrolyte (M‐CSE) is reported that is dynamically stable with lithium metal, promoting uniform Li+ deposition without dendrites. The resulting ASSLMBs exhibit an areal capacity of 10 mAh cm − 2 , an energy density of 219 Wh kg − ¹, and a current density of 3.76 mA cm − 2 , with a capacity retention of 95.04% after 500 cycles at 0.5C. The assembled lithium swagelok cell and solid‐state lithium‐metal pouch cells have relatively low pressures, with the swagelok cell stack pressure ≈30 MPa and the pouch cell stack pressure also ≈2 MPa. More importantly, mass production of ultra‐low‐pressure pouch cells is realized by 3D printing technology, marking a crucial breakthrough for practical applications.

14Progress of Polymer Electrolytes Worked in Solid‐State Lithium Batteries for Wide‐Temperature ApplicationOpenAlex

Long Hu, Xue Gao, Hui Wang, et al.
Solid-state Li-ion batteries have emerged as the most promising next-generation energy storage systems, offering theoretical advantages such as superior safety and higher energy density. However, polymer-based solid-state Li-ion batteries face challenges across wide temperature ranges. The primary issue lies in the fact that most polymer electrolytes exhibit relatively low ionic conductivity at or below room temperature. This sensitivity to temperature variations poses challenges in operating solid-state lithium batteries at sub-zero temperatures. Moreover, elevated working temperatures lead to polymer shrinkage and deformation, ultimately resulting in battery failure. To address this challenge of polymer-based solid-state batteries, this review presents an overview of various promising polymer electrolyte systems. The review provides insights into the temperature-dependent physical and electrochemical properties of polymers, aiming to expand the temperature range of operation. The review also further summarizes modification strategies for polymer electrolytes suited to diverse temperatures. The final section summarizes the performance of various polymer-based solid-state batteries at different temperatures. Valuable insights and potential future research directions for designing wide-temperature polymer electrolytes are presented based on the differences in battery performance. This information is intended to inspire practical applications of wide-temperature polymer-based solid-state batteries.

15Sulfide/Polymer Composite Solid‐State Electrolytes for All‐Solid‐State Lithium BatteriesOpenAlex

Sijie Liu, Le Zhou, Tingjun Zhong, et al.
Abstract This review introduces solid electrolytes based on sulfide/polymer composites which are used in all‐solid‐state lithium batteries, describing the use of polymers as plasticizer, the lithium‐ion conductive channel, the preparation methods of solid‐state electrolytes (SSEs), including dry methods and wet methods with their advantages and disadvantages. In addition, the physicochemical stability of sulfide/polymer composite based solid‐state electrolytes is analyzed. The sulfide/polymer composite based solid‐state electrolyte can be utilized in lithium metal or lithium sulfur batteries. However, there are still many problems left to be solved in practical applications of these solid‐state electrolytes. In this review, several solutions are explored. Firstly, the ultra‐long life cycle of batteries can be achieved by thinning the composite electrolyte. Secondly, when sulfur is applied as the positive electrode, the thinning electrolyte can reduce polarization and other problems. Finally, an integrated battery is employed to reduce the interface impedance. By addressing these aspects, the review aims to provide valuable insights into the future development of high‐performance solid‐state electrolytes in lithium battery technology.

16Self‐Assembled Monolayer in Hybrid Quasi‐Solid Electrolyte Enables Boosted Interface Stability and Ion ConductionOpenAlex

Wenyi Ma, Yuxiang Guo, Jianqi Sun, et al.
Abstract Complex interactions between the inorganic solid electrolyte (ISE) and the liquid electrolyte (LE) give rise to challenges of achieving durable interface stability in hybrid quasi‐solid electrolytes (HQSE), and the influence on the involved ISE surface ionic conductivity also needs to be investigated. Here, 4‐chlorobenzenesulfonic acid (CBSA) is utilized to establish a self‐assembled monolayer (SAM) on the surface of Li 6.4 La 3 Zr 1.4 Ta 0.6 O 12 (LLZTO), which is then incorporated into PEGDA‐based in situ polymerized HQSE. The results show that the introduction of CBSA significantly improves the LLZTO/LE interface stability with the optimized solvation structure, resulting in a favorable ionic conductivity (1.19 mS⋅cm −1 ) and an increasing Li + transference number (0.647). Mechanisms for the promotion of ionic conduction and interfacial stability of SAM‐HQSE are unveiled through the density functional theory (DFT) combined with Raman spectra and 7 Li solid‐state nuclear‐magnetic‐resonance. There are no short‐circuits in the Li|SAM‐HQSE|Li cells after 1000 h. The LFP|SAM‐HQSE|Li cells or LFP|SAM‐HQSE|Graphite pouch cells respectively achieve the capacity retention of 91.2 % and 87.0 % with the 0.5.C‐rate for 500 and 300 cycles. This facile and effective strategy proposed in this work make it accessible for constructing the stable surface micro‐environments of LLZTO where boost and homogenize the Li + conduction in a hybrid quasi‐solid electrolyte system.

17Dual fluorination of polymer electrolyte and conversion-type cathode for high-capacity all-solid-state lithium metal batteriesOpenAlex

Jiulin Hu, Chuanzhong Lai, Keyi Chen, et al.
Abstract All-solid-state batteries are appealing electrochemical energy storage devices because of their high energy content and safety. However, their practical development is hindered by inadequate cycling performances due to poor reaction reversibility, electrolyte thickening and electrode passivation. Here, to circumvent these issues, we propose a fluorination strategy for the positive electrode and solid polymeric electrolyte. We develop thin laminated all-solid-state Li||FeF 3 lab-scale cells capable of delivering an initial specific discharge capacity of about 600 mAh/g at 700 mA/g and a final capacity of about 200 mAh/g after 900 cycles at 60 °C. We demonstrate that the polymer electrolyte containing AlF 3 particles enables a Li-ion transference number of 0.67 at 60 °C. The fluorinated polymeric solid electrolyte favours the formation of ionically conductive components in the Li metal electrode’s solid electrolyte interphase, also hindering dendritic growth. Furthermore, the F-rich solid electrolyte facilitates the Li-ion storage reversibility of the FeF 3 -based positive electrode and decreases the interfacial resistances and polarizations at both electrodes.

18Sulfide-Based Anode-Free Solid-State Batteries: Key Challenges and Emerging SolutionsOpenAlex

Jiwei Wang, Hongli Zhu
Sulfide-based anode-free solid-state batteries (AFSSBs) have emerged as a transformative technology for next-generation energy storage, offering compelling advantages in energy density, safety, and manufacturing scalability. However, these batteries face significant challenges, particularly rapid capacity degradation that currently limits their practical implementation. This comprehensive review critically examines three fundamental issues affecting AFSSBs: nonuniform lithium nucleation on bare current collectors, unstable interfaces between plated lithium and sulfide electrolytes, and formation of interfacial voids during cycling. We systematically evaluate recent strategic advances in addressing these challenges, including metal seed coatings, conversion reaction-based compounds, and carbon-based interlayers. The review also analyzes the crucial role of advanced characterization techniques, from cryo-FIB-SEM to operando methods, in understanding failure mechanisms and validating improvement strategies. Finally, we present a forward-looking perspective on research directions necessary for commercialization. This work provides a thorough framework for understanding and advancing sulfide-based AFSSBs toward practical applications in next-generation energy storage systems.

19Breaking the Trade‐Off between Ionic Conductivity and Mechanical Strength in Solid Polymer Electrolytes for High‐Performance Solid Lithium BatteriesOpenAlex

Ao Du, Haotian Lu, Sisi Liu, et al.
Abstract Solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) are among the most promising candidates for solid‐state batteries due to their easy processibility, interface compatibility, and cost efficiency. However, the trade‐off between the ionic conductivity and mechanical strength of SPEs, which has persisted for decades, hinders their application in solid‐state lithium (Li) metal batteries. In this study, the aim is to break this trade‐off by utilizing poly(p‐phenylene benzobisoxazole) (PBO) nanofibers as a mechanically strong backbone and polyethylene oxide (PEO) as an ionically conductive network. The PBO/PEO composite electrolyte reduces the crystallinity of PEO while increasing the mechanical strength (74.4 MPa, ≈14 times that of PEO). Thus, PBO/PEO simultaneously improves ionic conductivity and mechanical strength both at room temperature and elevated temperatures, enabling uniform and smooth Li deposition. Thus, a long cycle life of solid‐state Li symmetric cells for 1000 h at 60 °C is achieved, and stable cycling of solid‐state Li metal full batteries at 60 °C and even 100 °C. Furthermore, the solid‐state pouch cell using this SPE exhibits excellent performance reliably after bending. The study clearly indicates that simultaneously improving mechanical properties and conductivity is the indispensable path to the practical application of solid‐state electrolytes.

20Realizing high-capacity all-solid-state lithium-sulfur batteries using a low-density inorganic solid-state electrolyteOpenAlex

Daiwei Wang, Li‐Ji Jhang, Rong Kou, et al.
Abstract Lithium-sulfur all-solid-state batteries using inorganic solid-state electrolytes are considered promising electrochemical energy storage technologies. However, developing positive electrodes with high sulfur content, adequate sulfur utilization, and high mass loading is challenging. Here, to address these concerns, we propose using a liquid-phase-synthesized Li 3 PS 4 -2LiBH 4 glass-ceramic solid electrolyte with a low density (1.491 g cm −3 ), small primary particle size (~500 nm) and bulk ionic conductivity of 6.0 mS cm −1 at 25 °C for fabricating lithium-sulfur all-solid-state batteries. When tested in a Swagelok cell configuration with a Li-In negative electrode and a 60 wt% S positive electrode applying an average stack pressure of ~55 MPa, the all-solid-state battery delivered a high discharge capacity of about 1144.6 mAh g −1 at 167.5 mA g −1 and 60 °C. We further demonstrate that the use of the low-density solid electrolyte increases the electrolyte volume ratio in the cathode, reduces inactive bulky sulfur, and improves the content uniformity of the sulfur-based positive electrode, thus providing sufficient ion conduction pathways for battery performance improvement.
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