1. 微塑料的基本属性与多介质赋存现状
1.1 微塑料的定义、分类与来源特征
微塑料（Microplastics, MPs）被定义为尺寸小于5毫米的塑料颗粒，而纳米塑料（Nanoplastics, NPs）则指尺寸在1到100纳米之间的塑料颗粒123。这些微小的塑料颗粒因其独特的物理化学性质（如密度、疏水性、表面功能化、颗粒形状和大小、转变温度以及机械性能）以及日益增长的塑料生产和使用量，已成为全球环境普遍关注的新兴污染物145。
根据来源，微塑料可分为初生微塑料（primary microplastics）和次生微塑料（secondary microplastics）。初生微塑料是指那些在生产时就被设计为微小尺寸的塑料颗粒，例如用于化妆品中的微珠、工业磨料或纺织品中的合成纤维26。次生微塑料则主要来源于大型塑料废弃物在环境中的物理、化学和生物降解过程，通过风化、光照、氧化等作用，逐渐破碎成更小的碎片237。
微塑料的形态多样，主要包括碎片、纤维、颗粒、薄膜和泡沫等8。聚合物类型也多种多样，常见的有聚乙烯（PE）、聚丙烯（PP）、聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯（PET）、聚苯乙烯（PS）和聚氯乙烯（PVC）等79。
微塑料的排放源广泛且复杂，主要包括以下几个方面：
- 工业源：塑料生产、加工过程中产生的颗粒，以及工业废水排放。
- 农业源：农用薄膜（地膜）的广泛使用和老化破碎是土壤微塑料的重要来源101112。此外，污水污泥作为肥料施用于农田，也带来了大量的微塑料1012。
- 生活源：日常生活中塑料制品的使用和废弃是主要的排放途径。例如，合成纺织品在洗涤过程中会释放大量微塑料纤维7；个人护理产品（如洗面奶、牙膏）中的微珠2；轮胎磨损产生的颗粒物也是重要的微塑料来源7。
- 大气沉降：风力可以将微塑料颗粒携带至很远的距离，并通过大气沉降进入水体和土壤环境7121314。例如，瑞士山区土壤中检测到的微塑料很可能就是风力携带的结果7。
- 废弃物管理不当：全球范围内，废弃塑料的收集和处理不当导致大量塑料进入自然环境，其中约79%的塑料最终被填埋或直接释放7。据估计，仅在2010年就有约900万吨塑料进入海洋，这主要归因于废弃物管理不善7。
这些多种来源和复杂的降解过程，使得微塑料成为一种无处不在的环境污染物，对生态系统和人类健康构成潜在威胁。
1.2 水体环境中微塑料的分布规律
微塑料在水体环境中的分布广泛且复杂，涵盖地表水（如河流、湖泊、海洋）、地下水以及饮用水等多种类型。其浓度水平、形态特征和聚合物组成因地理位置、污染源和水体特性而异。
地表水：
河流作为陆源污染物向海洋输送的关键通道，其微塑料污染水平普遍较高。例如，中国的长江口及其邻近的东海海域表层水中微塑料密度分别为4137.3 ± 2461.5 个/立方米和0.167 ± 0.138 个/立方米 15。黄河下游近河口区域的表层水微塑料污染已得到关注 16。海河口和永定新河口作为渤海湾的典型河口，其表层水微塑料平均浓度分别为1485.7 ± 819.9 个/立方米和788.0 ± 464.2 个/立方米，且海河口的浓度显著高于永定新河口，表明人类活动和河流输入是河口区域微塑料污染的主要来源 17。在北部湾钦河的地表水和沉积物中也发现了微塑料的存在和分布 18。这些研究普遍指出，河流中的微塑料浓度受人口密度、工业活动和污水排放等因素影响显著。
湖泊和水库也面临微塑料污染。例如，俄罗斯拉多加湖的水体和底泥中也检测到微塑料颗粒 19。湖泊中的微塑料主要来自大气沉降、地表径流以及周边人类活动。
海洋环境是微塑料的最终归宿之一。全球海洋中的微塑料分布已得到广泛关注，其浓度因区域而异，但在大多数海域，特别是近岸水域和环流汇集区，微塑料污染已达到较高水平。研究发现，纤维是水体中最常见的微塑料形态，其次是碎片和薄膜 15 17。聚合物类型通常以聚乙烯（PE）和聚丙烯（PP）为主，这与全球塑料生产和消费结构相符。
地下水：
地下水系统，特别是岩溶含水层，由于其开放性和与地表水体及土壤的直接水力联系，也容易受到微塑料污染。例如，在美国伊利诺伊州的两个岩溶含水层中，泉水和水井中均检测到微塑料，最高浓度为15.2个/升，且均为纤维状 20。这表明污水排放可能是地下水微塑料的重要来源。一项关于微塑料良好现场实践和水文地质知识的研究指出，确定地下水中微塑料的可靠浓度至关重要 21。此外，垃圾填埋场周围的地下水中也检测到微塑料的存在，这凸显了填埋场作为潜在微塑料污染源对地下水环境的威胁 22。在饮用水源地，地下水中也检出微塑料，且与抗生素等其他污染物存在关联 23。
饮用水：
随着微塑料污染的日益关注，饮用水中的微塑料检测也受到重视。微塑料已在自来水厂（DWTPs）的源水和处理后的水中被检测到 24。即使是先进的饮用水处理厂（ADWTP），也无法完全去除微塑料。研究表明，混凝沉淀和颗粒活性炭（GAC）过滤对微塑料具有一定的去除效率，但仍有部分微塑料，尤其是小尺寸的，可能通过处理系统进入饮用水。臭氧氧化处理甚至可能导致1-5微米微塑料数量的增加 24。在饮用水分配系统（DWDSs）中，微塑料的出现是一个日益增长的担忧，因为它们具有持久性、潜在的生物累积性和对人类健康的风险 25。磨损和劣化的塑料管道和配件被认为是DWDSs中微塑料污染的潜在来源 25。墨西哥城都会区对去中心化饮用水自助加水亭的调查发现，所有取样饮用水中都含有微塑料，浓度范围为11到860个/升，其中纤维状微塑料占65% 26。饮用水中的微塑料主要以小尺寸纤维和碎片为主，聚合物类型多样，包括聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯（PET）、聚酰胺、乙烯基聚合物等 26。这表明，饮用水中的微塑料不仅可能来自水源，也可能在处理和输送过程中产生。
1.3 土壤环境中微塑料的分布规律
土壤作为地球表面最大的生态系统，是微塑料重要的汇集地，其微塑料污染问题日益突出。微塑料在土壤环境中的分布受到多种因素的影响，包括土地利用类型、污染源、土壤理化性质以及气候条件等。不同场景下的土壤，如农田、城市建设用地和矿区，其微塑料的赋存特征也呈现出显著差异。
农田土壤：
农田是微塑料的重要接收者和积累场所。农业活动中大量使用的农用薄膜（地膜）是农田土壤微塑料的主要来源之一 2728。这些薄膜在使用过程中会因风化、光照和机械作用而破碎，形成大量的微塑料碎片 29。此外，污水污泥（也称生物固体）作为农业肥料的施用，是农田土壤微塑料的另一个关键输入途径 30313233。污水污泥中含有高浓度的微塑料，其含量甚至高于废水，长期施用会导致农田土壤中微塑料的持续积累 32。例如，有研究发现，在连续施用污泥的农田土壤中，微塑料的累积量随时间显著增加，其中纤维状微塑料占比高达97% 30。中国作为全球最大的塑料生产和消费国之一，其农田土壤微塑料污染尤为严重，尤其是在长期覆盖地膜的水稻土中，微塑料的分布和风化特征已引起广泛关注 293435。研究表明，中国农田和地下水样本中的微塑料浓度普遍高于其他国家 36。这些微塑料在农田土壤中分布不均，从浅层（0-5厘米）到深层（40厘米）均有发现 36。
城市建设用地：
城市土壤中的微塑料主要来源于城市生活垃圾、道路磨损（如轮胎碎片）、大气沉降以及雨水径流。随着城市化进程的加快，城市区域塑料废弃物的增多，使得城市土壤中的微塑料含量也相应增加 37。例如，对南京城市土壤中微塑料的调查显示，城市功能区划、人口密度和污水管网覆盖率等因素对微塑料的累积有显著影响 37。城市绿地、公园等区域，虽然直接污染源较少，但仍会通过大气沉降和径流输入接收微塑料。
矿区土壤：
矿区，特别是煤矿区，也面临着微塑料污染的挑战。有研究首次在捷克共和国最大的黑煤矿区的矿井水和附近浅层水井中检测到微塑料，这表明地下水并非完全免受微塑料污染 38。矿井通风导致的大气沉降和通过废弃矿井的渗透被认为是矿区地下水微塑料的潜在来源 38。此外，中国安徽北部某煤矿塌陷区的土壤、水体和大气环境中也发现了微塑料的存在和分布，其中土壤微塑料的含量及其影响因素已被深入研究 39。采矿活动，包括矿物开采、运输和加工过程，可能产生或释放塑料颗粒，并通过径流或大气沉降进入矿区土壤。在淡水水体和近矿区的微塑料研究中，微塑料与重金属之间的关系也日益受到关注 4041。
输入途径的影响：
- 农膜使用：农膜，尤其是聚乙烯（PE）地膜，在农业生产中被广泛应用以提高作物产量和保持土壤水分。然而，这些薄膜在使用过程中不可避免地会降解破碎成微塑料，并在农田土壤中长期存在 2728。长期使用城市堆肥也可能导致粗微塑料在农田土壤中的积累 42。
- 污泥施用：污水处理厂产生的污泥，在经过处理后常被用作农业肥料。由于污水中含有大量微塑料，这些微塑料随污泥进入农田，成为土壤微塑料的重要来源 30313233。
- 大气沉降：大气是微塑料的重要传输介质，通过干湿沉降，大气中的微塑料可以远距离传输并沉降到土壤中。森林土壤就是通过大气沉降积累微塑料的典型案例，研究发现森林是大气微塑料污染的良好指示剂 43。
- 洪水事件：洪水事件也可能导致微塑料从地表径流向土壤深层的渗透，特别是在易发洪涝的地区，微塑料向土壤剖面深层的渗透更为显著 36。
总的来说，土壤中的微塑料种类繁多，包括纤维、碎片、薄膜和颗粒等，其聚合物类型也与常见的塑料制品相符 4445。微塑料在土壤中的积累不仅改变土壤的理化性质，还可能对土壤微生物群落和植物生长产生负面影响，进而威胁农产品安全和生态系统健康 28344546。
2. 微塑料检测技术研究进展
微塑料污染的日益严重促使科学家们不断开发和优化其检测技术，以实现对不同环境介质中微塑料的准确识别、定量和表征。微塑料检测面临的主要挑战包括其尺寸的多样性（从毫米级到纳米级）、复杂的聚合物类型、多变的形态以及环境样本基质的复杂性47。因此，一个全面而有效的微塑料检测流程通常包括样品采集、前处理（如密度分离、有机物消解）以及后续的定性定量分析。
2.1 环境介质中微塑料的检测技术
环境介质（如水体、土壤和沉积物）中微塑料的检测是一个多步骤的过程，通常包括样品采集、前处理和仪器分析。这些步骤对于确保检测结果的准确性和可靠性至关重要。
前处理优化方法：
环境样品的前处理是微塑料检测的关键环节，其目的是将微塑料从复杂的基质中分离出来，并去除可能干扰后续分析的有机和无机杂质。
筛分 (Sieving)：筛分是根据粒径大小分离微塑料最常用的方法之一。通过使用不同孔径的筛网，可以将样品中的微塑料颗粒按照大小范围进行分级。然而，筛网的孔径选择会显著影响微塑料丰度的估算，尤其是对于尺寸较小的微塑料，可能会被低估4849。此外，筛分过程中可能会引入额外的污染，需要严格的质量控制。
密度分离 (Density Separation)：由于大多数塑料的密度低于无机矿物（如沙子、土壤颗粒），密度分离是一种有效去除高密度无机基质的方法。该技术利用高密度盐溶液（如氯化钠、溴化钠、碘化钠或钨酸钠溶液）的浮力，使塑料颗粒浮起，而 denser 的矿物颗粒下沉5051。研究表明，溴化钠溶液在分离常规和可生物降解微塑料方面表现出较高的回收率，对于不同固体样品基质（如沙子、人工土壤和堆肥）的回收率可达87.3-100.3%（常规聚合物）和38.2-78.2%（可生物降解聚合物）50。密度分离的效果受盐溶液类型、微塑料聚合物类型及其表面性质的影响。
有机物消解 (Organic Digestion)：环境样品中往往含有大量有机质（如腐殖质、植物残渣、生物体等），这些有机质会干扰微塑料的识别和分析。化学消解法是去除这些有机质的常用手段，包括使用强氧化剂（如H₂O₂、Fenton试剂、酸类）或强碱（如KOH、NaOH）进行处理5152。例如，湿酸消解法已被用于从生物组织中提取微塑料52。然而，消解过程需要严格控制条件，以避免对微塑料本身的物理和化学性质造成改变，例如改变颗粒大小和表面形貌50。
过滤 (Filtration)：在水样和消解后的样品中，过滤通常用于收集微塑料颗粒。常用的滤膜材料包括玻璃纤维滤膜、聚碳酸酯滤膜或氧化铝滤膜。滤膜孔径的选择同样会影响微塑料的捕获效率，较小的孔径可以捕获更小的颗粒，但也会增加堵塞的风险。
定性定量分析技术：
前处理后的样品需要借助先进的仪器分析技术对微塑料的类型、数量、大小和形态进行准确识别和定量。
光谱技术 (Spectroscopy Techniques)：
- 傅里叶变换红外光谱 (FTIR Spectroscopy)：FTIR是一种广泛应用的微塑料鉴定技术，它通过分析聚合物吸收红外光的特征谱图来识别其化学组成485354。FTIR可以提供聚合物的“指纹”信息，从而鉴定微塑料的类型。宏观FTIR和微区FTIR（FTIR显微镜）分别适用于较大和较小颗粒的分析。其优点是快速、无损，且可以对不同尺寸的微塑料进行分析。然而，FTIR的检测限受限于颗粒尺寸和样品背景，对于小于20微米的微塑料，其灵敏度会降低47。此外，表面污染或生物膜可能会干扰光谱信号。
- 拉曼光谱 (Raman Spectroscopy)：拉曼光谱与FTIR类似，也是基于分子振动的原理来识别聚合物类型。它具有更高的空间分辨率，可以检测到更小的微塑料颗粒（低至1微米甚至纳米级），且受水干扰较小，适用于水性样品4754。然而，拉曼光谱的荧光效应可能会干扰信号，且其分析速度通常较慢。最新研究表明，拉曼显微镜可以识别生物组织中的聚四氟乙烯（PTFE）和聚苯乙烯（PS）等六种聚合物类型，并提供颗粒的形态特征55。
- 高光谱成像 (Hyperspectral Imaging, HSI)：HSI结合了光谱学和成像技术，可以同时获取样品的光谱信息和空间信息。这使得它能够识别样品中的微塑料颗粒，并提供其空间分布和化学组成信息5657。HSI在原位和非侵入性检测方面具有潜力，例如在农田土壤中，HSI结合机器学习算法（如1D-CNN）已被证明能高效准确地分类和检测聚乙烯、聚丙烯和聚氯乙烯等微塑料聚合物，准确率可达95%5859。然而，HSI技术对数据处理和分析能力要求较高。
色谱-质谱联用技术 (Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Techniques)：
- 热解气相色谱-质谱 (Pyrolysis-Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry, Py-GC/MS)：Py-GC/MS是一种强大的微塑料定性定量技术，通过高温热解将聚合物分解成特征性的小分子碎片，然后通过GC/MS进行分离和鉴定535460。Py-GC/MS可以准确识别复杂的聚合物混合物，并提供微塑料的质量浓度，而非颗粒数量4753。该方法对于微小颗粒（包括纳米塑料）具有较高的灵敏度，并且能够穿透样品表面的污染物。例如，在人生物样本中，Py-GC/MS能够检测到拉曼光谱未发现的聚合物共存现象（如PS, PC, PE和PVC），这表明其在聚合物定量和复合材料鉴定方面的优势55。
- 热萃取-解吸气相色谱-质谱 (Thermal Extraction Desorption Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry, TED-GC/MS)：TED-GC/MS是一种快速且无需复杂样品前处理的微塑料分析方法。它通过加热样品使聚合物直接挥发或解吸，然后进行GC/MS分析。该方法特别适用于同时分析热塑性聚合物和轮胎磨损颗粒（Tire Wear Particles, TWP），通过识别弹性体、抗氧化剂和硫化剂的特征分解产物来区分不同类型的微塑料和TWP61。
技术瓶颈与挑战：
尽管微塑料检测技术取得了显著进展，但仍存在一些技术瓶颈和挑战：
- 标准化缺失：目前缺乏统一的样品采集、前处理和分析协议，导致不同研究结果之间难以进行比较49515254。
- 纳米塑料检测：对于纳米塑料的检测，现有技术仍面临高灵敏度、低检测限和准确表征的挑战4754。
- 样品基质复杂性：环境样品（如土壤、生物组织）中复杂的基质成分会严重干扰微塑料的分离和分析，需要进一步优化前处理方法4755。
- 生物膜和表面污染：微塑料表面常常附着生物膜或其他污染物，这可能影响光谱信号的准确性，甚至导致误判。
- 成本与效率：高分辨率的分析技术（如拉曼显微镜、Py-GC/MS）通常成本较高，且分析周期较长，限制了其在大规模监测中的应用。
- 自动化与高通量：现有方法往往需要大量的人工操作，缺乏高通量和自动化分析的能力。
为了克服这些挑战，未来的研究需要更加关注方法的标准化、新技术的开发（特别是针对纳米塑料的检测）、自动化分析流程以及多技术联用的策略，以实现对环境和生物体中微塑料的全面、准确和高效检测。
2.2 生物与人体样本中微塑料的检测技术
微塑料在生物和人体样本中的检测，因其基质的高度复杂性和微塑料含量通常较低的特点，面临着比环境介质检测更大的挑战。然而，随着对微塑料健康风险关注的日益增加，生物和人体样本中微塑料的检测技术研究也取得了显著进展，主要围绕分离富集方法和高灵敏度检测技术展开。
生物组织、体液等复杂基质中微塑料的分离富集方法：
在从生物和人体样本中提取微塑料时，核心挑战在于有效去除大量的生物大分子（如蛋白质、脂肪、核酸等），同时避免对微塑料本身造成污染或降解。
消化方法 (Digestion Methods)：
- 化学消解：这是最常用的方法之一，通过使用强酸、强碱或强氧化剂来分解生物组织。氢氧化钾（KOH）和蛋白酶K是常用的消化剂，它们能有效降解蛋白质和脂肪，而对常见的塑料聚合物影响较小。例如，有研究使用Fenton试剂和硝酸联合处理粪便样本，实现了高效的有机物降解和微塑料提取，回收率高达97.78% 62。胃肠道样本由于其复杂的食物残渣和微生物群落，通常需要更强的消解条件。
- 酶消解：相较于化学消解，酶消解（如使用蛋白酶K）是一种更温和的方法，能有效去除蛋白质，同时减少对微塑料的损伤，尤其适用于热敏感或化学敏感的聚合物。然而，酶消解的效率可能低于化学消解，并且成本相对较高。
- 多步消化：为了最大限度地去除生物基质，研究人员常采用多步消化方案，结合物理（如超声、离心）和化学/酶（如KOH、H₂O₂、蛋白酶K）处理。例如，在检测人体肺组织中的微塑料时，通常会进行组织均质化、密度分离和化学消解等步骤 63。
密度分离 (Density Separation)：与环境样本类似，密度分离也是从生物样本中分离微塑料的重要步骤。通过调节溶液密度（如使用NaCl、NaI、ZnCl₂等高密度盐溶液），使轻质的微塑料从消化后的生物残渣中分离出来。该方法能够有效去除大部分无机和重质生物组分。
过滤与离心 (Filtration and Centrifugation)：消化和密度分离后，通过过滤或离心来收集微塑料颗粒。选择合适的滤膜孔径或离心参数对于捕获不同尺寸的微塑料至关重要。例如，在分析人体血浆中的微塑料时，通常通过离心去除细胞碎片，再通过过滤收集微塑料。
超声处理 (Sonication)：超声波可以帮助分散样品中的微塑料，防止其团聚，并提高消解效率。然而，过度的超声可能会导致微塑料破碎，改变其尺寸和形态。
低含量纳米微塑料的高灵敏度检测技术研发与应用进展：
纳米塑料（NPs）由于其尺寸极小（小于1微米）且通常含量极低，在生物和人体样本中的检测极具挑战性。现有技术仍在不断发展中，以提高NPs的灵敏度、准确性和特异性。
光谱技术 (Spectroscopy Techniques)：
- 拉曼光谱 (Raman Spectroscopy)：拉曼光谱因其高空间分辨率和能够检测微米级颗粒的能力，成为检测生物样本中微塑料的关键技术 64。它能够提供聚合物的化学“指纹”，从而识别微塑料的类型。然而，生物基质中的荧光干扰是拉曼光谱面临的主要挑战，可能掩盖微塑料的拉曼信号。为了克服这一问题，研究人员正在探索表面增强拉曼光谱（SERS）等增强技术，以及结合高级数据处理算法来降低荧光背景。在人乳样本的初步筛查中，拉曼光谱已被证明可以快速检测聚乙烯（PE）和聚苯乙烯（PS）等常见微塑料，尽管其定量能力仍受限 65。
- 傅里叶变换红外光谱 (FTIR Spectroscopy)：虽然FTIR的通常空间分辨率低于拉曼光谱，但微区FTIR（μFTIR）可以检测小至3微米的颗粒 63。它在识别生物样本（如人体肺组织、胎盘）中微塑料的聚合物类型方面仍然是重要的工具。对于纳米塑料，μFTIR的直接检测能力有限，但结合其他富集技术后，仍可用于鉴定较大尺寸范围内的纳米颗粒。
- 高光谱成像 (Hyperspectral Imaging)：结合了光谱和成像优势的HSI技术，有望实现对生物组织中纳米微塑料的非侵入性检测和空间分布分析，但目前仍在早期研发阶段。
质谱联用技术 (Mass Spectrometry-based Techniques)：
- 热解气相色谱-质谱 (Py-GC/MS)：Py-GC/MS是目前公认的检测微塑料（包括纳米塑料）最灵敏和最可靠的方法之一。它通过高温热解将聚合物分解成特征性的小分子碎片，并进行质谱分析，从而实现聚合物类型的定性以及质量浓度的定量。Py-GC/MS能够克服生物基质的干扰，对于复杂基质中的低含量纳米塑料具有显著优势。例如，在人体子宫内膜和尿液样本中，Py-GC/MS能够检测到拉曼光谱未能发现的聚合物类型（如PC、PE、PVC），显示其在复合材料识别和定量方面的优越性 55。
- 热萃取-解吸气相色谱-质谱 (TED-GC/MS)：TED-GC/MS是Py-GC/MS的一种变体，适用于分析挥发性或易解吸的聚合物成分，在生物样本中同样具有应用潜力。
显微技术 (Microscopy Techniques)：
- 扫描电子显微镜 (SEM) 和透射电子显微镜 (TEM)：SEM和TEM能够提供纳米塑料的形貌、尺寸和元素组成信息，尤其是在结合能量色散X射线光谱（EDX）后。然而，这些技术通常不具备直接的聚合物识别能力，且样品制备复杂，通量较低，主要用于确认纳米塑料的存在和表征其物理属性。
新兴与创新方法：
- 流式细胞术 (Flow Cytometry)：流式细胞术在生物学研究中广泛应用于颗粒分析，其在检测和分选生物液体中的纳米塑料方面具有潜力，特别是针对荧光标记的纳米塑料。
- 场流分级 (Field Flow Fractionation, FFF) 和凝胶渗透色谱 (Gel Permeation Chromatography, GPC)：这些技术可以根据尺寸或水动力学体积对纳米颗粒进行分离，然后与ICP-MS或其他检测器联用，实现纳米塑料的分离和检测 66。
- 免疫学方法：正在探索开发针对特定聚合物的抗体，利用免疫学原理进行纳米塑料的特异性识别，但这仍在早期研究阶段。
- 数字全息成像 (Digital Holographic Imaging, DHI) 和荧光寿命成像显微镜 (Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy, FLIM)：这些强大的成像技术有望实现纳米塑料表面形貌的纳米级分析 66。
挑战与展望：
尽管检测技术不断进步，但生物和人体样本中微塑料的检测仍面临多重挑战：
- 超低含量：人体样本中微塑料的浓度通常极低，需要超高灵敏度的检测方法。
- 污染控制：样本采集、处理和分析过程中，环境和实验室中的微塑料污染是一个严重问题，需要极其严格的质量控制措施。
- 标准化：缺乏统一的生物样本处理和分析标准，导致不同研究结果难以比较。
- 纳米塑料的特异性识别：将天然纳米颗粒与纳米塑料区分开来仍然是一个难题。
- 生物相容性：评估检测方法对生物样本和微塑料本身的影响至关重要。
未来研究将致力于开发更高通量、更灵敏、更具特异性的检测技术，特别是针对纳米塑料的检测。结合多种分析方法，利用机器学习等先进的数据分析工具，以及推动国际间的标准化合作，将是克服现有挑战、全面评估微塑料对人体健康影响的关键 67。目前已有研究证实微塑料普遍存在于人体组织和器官中，包括心血管、消化、内分泌、淋巴、呼吸、生殖和泌尿系统，以及母乳、胎粪、精液、粪便、痰液和尿液等生物样本中 6869，这更加凸显了精确检测技术的重要性。
3. 微塑料的迁移转化与多路径暴露特征
3.1 环境介质间微塑料的迁移与食物链富集
微塑料在环境中的复杂性不仅体现在其多样的形态和组成上，更在于其在不同环境介质间的动态迁移、转化以及在食物链中的富集效应。理解这些过程对于评估微塑料的生态环境风险和健康风险至关重要。
水-土-气界面的微塑料迁移扩散规律：
微塑料的迁移是一个多介质、多过程的复杂系统。
- 水体-沉积物界面：水体中的微塑料，特别是密度大于水的颗粒，会逐渐沉降至水底，成为沉积物的一部分。水流、潮汐和底栖生物的活动则可能促进沉积物中的微塑料重新悬浮进入水体。此外，微塑料的表面性质，如生物膜的形成，会改变其在水中的沉降行为。
- 水体-大气界面：水体中的微塑料可以通过海浪、风吹等作用进入大气，形成“海洋气溶胶”中的一部分。反之，大气中的微塑料也可以通过干湿沉降进入水体。这种跨介质传输使得微塑料能够进行长距离迁移，甚至到达偏远地区。
- 土壤-大气界面：土壤中的微塑料颗粒可以通过风力侵蚀、农业耕作等方式释放到大气中，形成土壤尘埃中的微塑料组分。大气中的微塑料也可通过沉降回到土壤。
- 土壤-水体界面：农田径流、地表径流和渗透水流可以将土壤中的微塑料携带至地表水体或地下水系统。污水灌溉和污泥施用是人为活动导致微塑料从土壤进入水体的重要途径。
微塑料的物理化学性质（如尺寸、形状、密度、表面电荷）以及环境条件（如水流速度、风速、土壤湿度、pH值、盐度）都会显著影响其在不同介质间的迁移行为 1。例如，在岩溶含水层中，微塑料的迁移与水力连通性密切相关，污水排放被认为是地下水微塑料的重要来源。
微塑料在不同营养级生物中的积累放大特征与生物有效性：
微塑料进入生物体后，其在食物链中的传递和富集是生态风险评估的核心问题。
- 生物摄入与积累 (Bioaccumulation)：许多研究已证实，水生生物（如浮游动物、贝类、鱼类）和陆生生物（如土壤无脊椎动物、鸟类）能够摄入微塑料 7071727374。浮游动物（例如桡足类）是海洋食物网的重要环节，它们能轻易摄食微塑料，这不仅对其自身生理功能产生负面影响，也为微塑料向更高营养级传递提供了途径 707275。微塑料在生物体内的积累量受其颗粒大小、形状、聚合物类型和环境浓度等因素影响 707273。有研究表明，微塑料在野生动物中的丰度与体重的关系表现出复杂性，例如某些物种单位体重的微塑料丰度与体重呈负相关 71。
- 食物链传递与生物放大 (Trophic Transfer and Biomagnification)：微塑料可以通过食物链从低营养级向高营养级传递，引发潜在的生物放大效应 767778。即，微塑料在食物链中的浓度随营养级的升高而增加。例如，在海洋生态系统中，浮游动物摄食微塑料后，会被小型鱼类捕食，再通过食物网传递到大型鱼类、海洋哺乳动物和鸟类 7778。一项在海州湾沿海水域进行的研究发现，主要的微塑料形状、颜色和聚合物在两种商业鱼类（小黄鱼和梅童鱼）中均存在生物放大效应，特别是小于3毫米的微塑料表现出显著的生物放大 77。这表明，虽然微塑料在鸟类胃肠道中似乎不会优先滞留 71，但在一些特定的食物链中，微塑料的生物放大效应不容忽视。
- 生物有效性 (Bioavailability)：微塑料的生物有效性指的是其在生物体内被吸收、代谢或发挥毒性作用的能力。微塑料的尺寸、形状和表面性质（如亲水性、电荷、生物膜形成）会影响其生物有效性 17075。例如，不同的浮游动物对不同形状的微塑料表现出选择性摄食 75。此外，微塑料作为其他污染物（如持久性有机污染物、重金属）的载体，可以吸附这些污染物并将其携带进入生物体，从而增强共同污染物的生物有效性和毒性 7076798081。然而，微塑料作为化学污染物生物累积载体的作用仍在争论中，有研究表明，微塑料在鸟类体内的低丰度可能使其对化学污染物生物累积的影响微不足道 71。
- 植物摄取与传递：微塑料不仅在水生食物链中传递，在陆地生态系统中，植物也可以通过根部或叶片吸收微塑料和纳米塑料，并将其转运到其他部位 7378828384。这些被植物吸收的微塑料随后可能通过食草动物进入陆地食物链，甚至影响农产品的食品安全 788283。研究表明，纳米塑料比微塑料更容易进入植物细胞壁 84，且蒸腾拉力是植物吸收和转运塑料颗粒的主要因素 84。
总的来说，微塑料在环境介质间的迁移以及在食物链中的富集是一个复杂且动态的过程，其潜在的生物放大效应和与其他污染物的协同作用，对生态系统和人类健康构成了非传统且不断演变的威胁 7685。未来的研究需要更深入地探究其在多介质系统中的定量迁移规律，以及在不同营养级生物体内的积累和转化机制，特别是纳米塑料在生物体内的行为和效应。
3.2 人体微塑料暴露途径与累积特征
人类暴露于微塑料是一个普遍存在的问题，主要通过摄入（饮食和饮水）、吸入和皮肤接触等多种途径发生。这些微塑料随后可能在人体内的不同组织和器官中累积，并可能因年龄、性别、地理位置和生活方式等因素表现出人群差异。
量化不同暴露路径的贡献占比：
饮食摄入 (Ingestion via Food)：食物是人体摄入微塑料的主要途径之一。微塑料可以通过多种方式进入食物链，例如从受污染的水源、土壤到农产品和水产品，以及食品加工和包装过程中的污染。
- 估算摄入量：研究显示，美国成年人每年通过食物摄入的微塑料颗粒估计为39,000至52,000个，而当考虑吸入途径时，这一数字增加到74,000至121,000个86。这些估算值可能因研究方法和数据限制而被低估。韩国的一项研究估算，成年人每周通过食物摄入的微塑料约为1.4 × 10个颗粒或3.1 × 10克87。另一项针对伊朗香肠品牌的研究显示，成年人每年通过食用香肠摄入的微塑料估计为804个颗粒/公斤体重/年，儿童为3517个颗粒/公斤体重/年88。
- 常见受污染食物：海产品（尤其是贝类）、食盐、瓶装水、啤酒、蜂蜜、软饮料和加工食品（如香肠）都被证实含有微塑料878889。其中，瓶装水和外卖食物被认为与胎盘中微塑料的含量增加有关90。
饮用水摄入 (Ingestion via Water)：饮用水，特别是瓶装水，是微塑料摄入的重要来源。
呼吸吸入 (Inhalation)：空气中的微塑料，特别是室内灰尘和室外空气中的颗粒物，是人体吸入微塑料的重要来源91。
皮肤接触 (Dermal Contact)：皮肤接触也是微塑料暴露的一种途径，尽管其贡献相对较小且研究不如摄入和吸入充分95。日常使用的化妆品、个人护理产品以及穿着的合成纤维衣物，都可能导致微塑料通过皮肤直接接触进入人体。然而，相对于摄入和吸入，皮肤吸收的量通常被认为有限。
微塑料在人体各组织器官中的赋存特征与人群差异规律：
越来越多的证据表明，微塑料可以进入人体并累积在多个组织和器官中，其分布和累积特征因个体差异和暴露程度而异。
普遍存在性：微塑料已被证实在多种人体组织和体液中发现，包括血液96、粪便96、胎盘9097、肺94、肝脏9698、肾脏969899、脾脏96、肠道99、骨髓100、母乳97、胎粪9097和尿液99等。这表明微塑料在人体内的广泛分布和潜在累积能力。一项研究甚至在人类结肠癌和健康组织中也检测到了微塑料。
具体器官的累积情况：
- 大脑：研究发现，人脑组织中也存在微塑料，主要由聚乙烯（PE）组成，其中纳米级的碎片状颗粒居多。值得注意的是，痴呆症患者大脑中微塑料的累积量更高，且微塑料主要沉积在脑血管壁和免疫细胞中98。这提示了微塑料可能与神经退行性疾病的发生发展有关。
- 肝脏：在肝硬化患者的肝组织中检测到微塑料，但在无肝病患者的肝组织中未检测到，这可能表明肝脏疾病可能与微塑料的累积有关，或者微塑料本身可能参与了肝脏疾病的发生发展96。
- 肾脏：肾脏作为重要的排泄器官，微塑料也可能在此累积。一项综述强调，微塑料对肾脏的影响以及在慢性肾病患者中累积的潜力值得深入研究99。
- 肺部：由于呼吸吸入，微塑料在肺组织中被发现并不意外。肺部暴露于微塑料可能引起炎症反应和氧化应激，从而对呼吸系统健康造成影响9394。
- 胎盘与胎儿：微塑料在人类胎盘和胎儿胎粪中被检测到9097，这引发了对妊娠结局和儿童健康的担忧。一项研究显示，胎盘中微塑料的水平与新生儿出生体重降低和1分钟Apgar评分下降有关90。
- 骨髓：最新的研究首次在人类骨髓样本中发现了微塑料，平均浓度为51.29微克/克，主要包括聚乙烯（PE）、聚苯乙烯（PS）、聚氯乙烯（PVC）、聚己二酰己二胺66（PA66）和聚丙烯（PP）等，其中89.82%的微塑料小于100微米100。这表明微塑料可能对造血系统产生影响。
人群差异：
总体而言，人类通过多种途径持续暴露于微塑料，这些微塑料可以进入并累积在全身多个组织和器官中。虽然目前关于微塑料在人体内的累积机制、毒性作用以及剂量-效应关系仍需深入研究，但其普遍存在性和潜在健康风险已引起广泛关注。
4. 微塑料的生态环境风险研究进展
4.1 水生态系统风险效应
微塑料在水生态系统中的普遍存在，对水生生物乃至整个生态系统的结构和功能都构成了显著威胁。其生态风险效应涵盖了从个体水平的毒性作用到群落水平的结构变化，以及对关键生态过程（如物质循环）的影响。
对水生生物的个体水平毒性效应：
微塑料被水生生物摄入后，可在其体内积累并引发一系列毒性反应，这些效应因微塑料的理化性质（大小、形状、聚合物类型、表面特性）和生物体的种类而异。
摄食行为和能量代谢障碍：水生生物（如滤食性贝类、浮游动物、鱼类）往往将微塑料误认为是食物颗粒而摄入。例如，桡足类作为海洋浮游动物的主要组成部分，容易摄食微塑料，这不仅可能导致其消化道堵塞，还可能降低其真正的食物摄入量，从而影响能量获取和生长发育 70。淡水篮蛤（Corbicula javanicus）暴露于聚酯纤维和高密度聚乙烯微塑料碎片后，其抗氧化酶活性发生改变，表明微塑料引起了生理应激 101。微塑料还会影响生物体的觅食行为和能量分配，导致生长迟缓和繁殖能力下降 70。
氧化应激 (Oxidative Stress)：微塑料进入生物体后，常诱导活性氧（ROS）的过量产生，导致氧化应激。这种应激反应会损伤细胞的蛋白质、脂质和DNA，进而影响生物体的正常生理功能。多项研究表明，微塑料可以引起甲壳类动物（如十足目甲壳动物）的氧化应激 102。纳米塑料对鱼类和水生无脊椎动物的影响元分析也指出，纳米塑料显著增加了生物体的氧化应激和氧化损伤 103。
免疫毒性 (Immunotoxicity)：微塑料的摄入可能影响水生生物的免疫系统。甲壳类动物（如十足目甲壳动物）暴露于微塑料后，其免疫反应可能会受到抑制或异常激活 102。有研究显示，鱼类在暴露于微塑料后，其体内的免疫球蛋白M (IgM) 活性、吞噬作用、呼吸爆发和过氧化物酶活性等均受到影响 104。值得注意的是，微塑料作为污染物载体，其复合毒性可能更加复杂。例如，有研究发现，聚乙烯微塑料能降低全氟辛烷磺酸（PFOS）对欧洲鲈鱼的免疫毒性，表明微塑料与污染物之间的相互作用并非总是简单的叠加效应 104。
繁殖和发育毒性 (Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity)：微塑料，特别是纳米塑料，已被证明对水生生物的繁殖和发育过程产生负面影响 105。这可能包括降低产卵率、影响胚胎发育、导致幼体畸形或存活率下降。在甲壳类动物中，微塑料也已被证实会引起繁殖和发育毒性 102。纳米塑料暴露对鱼类和水生无脊椎动物的繁殖能力显著降低了36.0% 103。
神经毒性 (Neurotoxicity)：一些研究表明，微塑料可能对水生生物的神经系统产生影响。纳米塑料暴露显著降低了鱼类和水生无脊椎动物的神经传递系统功能15.9% 103。例如，在海洋糠虾（Neomysis awatschensis）中，金属与微塑料共存暴露可抑制乙酰胆碱酯酶活性，提示胆碱能系统受损，具有神经毒性效应 106。
行为改变 (Behavioral Alterations)：微塑料暴露还可能导致水生生物的行为异常，如游泳能力下降、摄食减少、避敌反应迟钝等，从而影响其生存和繁殖成功率 70。
对水生态群落结构、物质循环功能的宏观影响：
微塑料的生态毒性效应并非局限于个体层面，更会对整个水生态系统的群落结构和关键物质循环功能产生宏观影响。
改变群落结构 (Community Structure Alteration)：
- 浮游植物群落：微塑料的存在可以改变浮游植物群落的组成。例如，高浓度的微塑料显著改变了浮游植物群落结构，这主要是由蓝藻门（如Aphanocapsa和Pseudanabaena）丰度增加以及某些类群（如Crucigenia和Chlamydomonas）丰度减少所驱动 107。浮游植物是水生态系统的初级生产者，其群落组成的变化将对整个食物网产生级联效应。
- 微生物群落：微塑料表面可以形成独特的生物膜（“塑性圈”），为微生物提供新的定殖生境 108109。塑性圈内的微生物群落结构与周围水体中的浮游细菌群落明显不同，表现出更高的细菌多样性，并富集了具有塑料降解能力的微生物以及一些潜在病原体 109。这种独特的微生物群落变化可能影响水体中的微生物生态功能。
影响物质循环 (Nutrient Cycling)：
与其他污染物的协同作用 (Synergistic Effects with Other Pollutants)：微塑料具有很强的吸附性，能够吸附水体中的有机污染物（如持久性有机污染物POPs）、重金属和抗生素等 111。微塑料作为载体，可以将这些污染物传递给摄食它们的生物体，从而加剧这些污染物的毒性效应 70106。例如，金属与微塑料共存暴露已被证实增加了对海洋糠虾的毒性，并导致更高的金属生物富集，同时损害了抗氧化防御和胆碱能反应 106。此外，微塑料及其生物膜已被认为是水生环境中抗生素抗性基因（ARGs）扩散的热点，藻类群落及其“藻际”环境中的细菌-藻类相互作用可以促进ARGs的富集和传播 109112。
综上所述，微塑料在水生态系统中的风险效应是多方面、多层次的。从个体生物的生理损伤到群落结构的改变，再到物质循环功能的扰动，微塑料都可能通过直接或间接的方式，对水生态系统的健康和稳定性造成深远影响。未来的研究需要进一步阐明微塑料的长期、低剂量暴露效应，以及在真实复杂环境背景下，微塑料与其他环境因素（如气候变化、其他污染物）的复合作用机制。
4.2 土壤生态系统风险效应
微塑料进入土壤环境后，其持久性和广泛分布对土壤生态系统的健康构成了复杂且多方面的风险。这些风险不仅体现在对土壤物理化学性质的改变，对微生物群落结构和功能的影响，还直接或间接影响农作物的生长发育，甚至威胁农产品的质量安全。
微塑料对土壤理化性质的影响：
微塑料的引入会显著改变土壤的物理结构和化学组成，从而影响土壤的各项功能。
- 土壤结构与团聚体稳定性：微塑料，特别是聚乙烯（PE）和聚乳酸（PLA）等常规和可生物降解微塑料，已被证明会增加土壤中微团聚体（<250 µm）的比例，同时降低大团聚体（>250 µm）的比例 113。这可能导致土壤团聚体稳定性下降，从而影响土壤的通气性、持水能力和抗侵蚀能力。
- 土壤水分特征：微塑料可能会改变土壤的水分保持特性。
- 土壤养分含量：微塑料的存在会影响土壤中关键营养元素（如氮、磷、有机碳）的含量和有效性。例如，聚乙烯（PE）微塑料会略微增加土壤中的溶解性有机碳（DOC）含量，而聚乳酸（PLA）及其老化产物则显著增加DOC含量，最高可达24.04% 114。此外，不同类型的微塑料还会影响土壤中的硝态氮（NO₃⁻-N）、铵态氮（NH₄⁺-N）和有效磷含量 115。
- 土壤pH值：微塑料对土壤pH值的影响较为复杂。
- 与其他污染物的相互作用：微塑料能够与土壤中的重金属和有机污染物相互作用 116。这种相互作用可能改变污染物的生物有效性，影响其在土壤中的迁移和毒性。例如，聚甲基丙烯酸甲酯（PMMA）微塑料与砷（As）复合污染时，表现出协同毒性，并促进了砷在油菜幼苗中的积累 117。
微塑料对土壤微生物群落多样性的影响：
土壤微生物是维持土壤生态系统功能的核心，微塑料的引入会对微生物群落的结构、多样性和功能产生深远影响。
- 微生物群落结构变化：微塑料通常不会显著改变土壤微生物的α多样性，但聚羟基脂肪酸酯（PHA）污染显著降低了ACE、Chao1和Shannon指数，并会对微生物群落组成产生明显影响 115。例如，聚羟基脂肪酸酯（PHA）污染会显著降低酸杆菌门（Acidobacteriota）、变形菌门（Proteobacteria）和放线菌门（Actinobacteriota）的相对丰度，而提高厚壁菌门（Firmicutes）的丰度 115。在某些研究中，PE和PLA微塑料对细菌群落结构有影响，但未在门水平上明确指出降低酸杆菌门、变形菌门和放线菌门，提高厚壁菌门的丰度 113。这种变化可能与微塑料改变土壤物理化学性质以及作为微生物附着的表面有关 118。
- 微生物功能性变化：微塑料能够改变土壤微生物的生态功能，特别是与碳、氮循环相关的过程。研究发现，微塑料污染可能会扰乱土壤中基本的细菌代谢途径 115。某些类型的微塑料（如含有邻苯二甲酸酯增塑剂的PVC微塑料）能显著增加土壤中NH₄⁺-N含量，降低NO₃⁻-N含量，并影响氮固定微生物、尿素分解菌和硝酸盐还原菌的丰度，同时抑制硝化菌的活性 119。此外，微塑料会降低土壤酶活性，如β-葡萄糖苷酶、酸性磷酸酶、脲酶和荧光素二乙酸酯水解酶的活性 115。
- 微生物网络复杂性与稳定性：微塑料会降低土壤微生物网络的复杂性和稳定性，包括网络规模、连通性和关键物种的数量 120。这意味着微生物群落应对环境变化的能力可能下降。
- 设施农业中的影响：在设施农业中，设施使用年限的增加显著富集微塑料，并影响土壤细菌群落。研究发现，设施年限和微塑料都会显著增加酸杆菌门和透明纤维菌属（Hyphomicrobium）的丰度。尽管土壤pH值、有机质含量和设施年限对微生物群落的影响强于微塑料，但微塑料仍通过改变微生物组成来塑造其生态功能 121。
对农作物生长发育的毒性效应及农产品质量安全潜在风险：
微塑料对农作物的生长发育及其产品质量安全构成直接或间接威胁。
- 直接毒性效应：微塑料颗粒，特别是纳米塑料，可以直接进入植物细胞，干扰植物的生理代谢过程 27。微塑料可以抑制作物的萌发、根系伸长和生物量积累 117122。在水稻中，聚乙烯和聚乳酸微塑料能降低水稻产量，并降低籽粒蛋白质和赖氨酸水平 123。
- 协同毒性效应：微塑料常与土壤中的其他污染物（如重金属、农药）共同存在，形成复合污染，对农作物产生更强的协同毒性 117124。例如，微塑料与热浪同时出现会加剧水稻产量和营养成分的下降 123。与加拿大一枝黄花入侵相结合，土壤微塑料对水稻生长产生协同抑制作用，其联合效应比单一因素更具危害性 122。
- 对农产品质量安全的影响：微塑料及其吸附的污染物可以通过植物吸收进入农作物的可食部分，从而影响农产品的质量安全。例如，微塑料可能导致农产品中蛋白质等营养成分的含量下降 123。此外，微塑料可能吸附有机污染物等有害物质，通过农作物进入食品链，对人类健康构成潜在风险 76。
- 对根际微环境的影响：微塑料会改变根际土壤的理化性质和微生物群落，进而影响植物根系的生长和养分吸收。例如，聚苯乙烯和聚四氟乙烯微塑料会降低土壤pH值、砷的有效性、有效氮磷含量以及多种酶活性，从而间接影响水稻生长 125。
综上所述，土壤中的微塑料污染是一个复杂的生态环境问题，其对土壤理化性质、微生物群落和农作物生长的多重影响，共同构成了对陆地生态系统健康和农产品质量安全的潜在威胁。为了有效应对这一挑战，未来的研究应更加关注微塑料在真实农田环境中的长期影响、与其他环境因素的复合作用，以及开发有效的风险评估和修复策略。
5. 微塑料的人体健康风险研究进展
微塑料（MPs）和纳米塑料（NPs）在全球环境中的普遍存在，使得人体暴露不可避免，其对人类健康的潜在风险日益受到关注 126127128129130。尽管目前对微塑料人体健康影响的全面评估仍处于早期阶段，但越来越多的研究，特别是体外细胞实验和体内动物模型研究，已经揭示了微塑料可能诱导的毒性作用机制和潜在的健康损伤效应。
5.1 微塑料的人体毒性作用机制
微塑料进入人体后，其独特的物理化学性质（如尺寸、形状、聚合物类型、表面化学、表面电荷以及是否负载其他污染物）决定了其在细胞和分子层面诱导毒性反应的机制 126128130。目前研究主要集中在以下几个方面：
氧化应激 (Oxidative Stress)：
氧化应激被认为是微塑料诱导细胞损伤的核心机制之一 126128129130131。当微塑料进入细胞后，尤其是纳米塑料，它们可以干扰线粒体的正常功能，导致活性氧自由基（ROS）的过量产生 132。ROS水平升高会打破细胞内氧化与抗氧化系统的平衡，进而攻击细胞内的蛋白质、脂质和核酸等生物大分子，导致细胞损伤和功能障碍。例如，体外研究表明，纳米塑料可诱导人肝脏和肺部细胞线粒体损伤，表现为线粒体ROS过量产生、线粒体膜电位改变以及线粒体呼吸抑制 132。聚乙烯微塑料（PE-MPs）和氧化聚乙烯微塑料（Ox-PE-MPs）在小鼠体内能诱导大脑和肠道的氧化应激反应 133。氧化应激还与炎症反应、细胞凋亡和细胞自噬等下游效应密切相关 126130。炎症反应 (Inflammation)：
微塑料被免疫细胞（如巨噬细胞）识别为异物后，可以激活免疫信号通路，诱导炎症因子的释放，从而引发炎症反应 126127128130131。炎症是机体对损伤或感染的保护性反应，但慢性或过度炎症则会导致组织损伤和疾病发生。研究发现，聚乙烯微塑料和氧化聚乙烯微塑料能够引起小鼠大脑和肠道的炎症反应 133。纳米塑料也可以通过刺激促炎细胞因子（如IL-1β、TNF-α）的产生，在体内引起全身性炎症 130134。这种炎症反应不仅局限于微塑料富集的局部组织，还可能扩散至全身，影响多个器官系统 127。例如，在斑马鱼模型中，微塑料诱导的肝脏炎症被认为是导致神经行为毒性的一个重要驱动因素，可能通过改变的代谢物和细胞因子穿过血脑屏障，影响神经炎症和神经内分泌反应 134。细胞凋亡 (Apoptosis)：
微塑料诱导的氧化应激和炎症反应最终可能导致细胞死亡，其中细胞凋亡是一种重要的途径 126128130135。细胞凋亡是程序性细胞死亡，对维持组织稳态至关重要，但异常的细胞凋亡会引发组织损伤和器官功能障碍。多项体外研究证实，微塑料和纳米塑料可以诱导多种人体细胞（如胃肠道细胞、肝细胞、肺细胞）的凋亡 128135。一项系统综述指出，微塑料和纳米塑料通过增加细胞凋亡来发挥毒性作用 135。遗传毒性 (Genotoxicity)：
微塑料及其吸附的化学物质可能对细胞的遗传物质（DNA）造成损伤，表现为DNA链断裂、染色体畸变和基因突变等，从而导致遗传毒性 128130。虽然微塑料本身被认为是生物惰性的，但其表面吸附的重金属和有机污染物（如多环芳烃、邻苯二甲酸酯等）可能具有遗传毒性。此外，微塑料诱导的氧化应激也可能间接导致DNA损伤。一些研究表明，纳米塑料在体外实验中表现出遗传毒性效应，但其在复杂生物体内的遗传毒性机制仍需深入研究 128。其他作用机制：
- 肠道微生物群失调 (Gut Microbiome Dysbiosis)：微塑料可以积累在胃肠道中，干扰肠道微生物群的组成和功能，导致菌群失调 127136。这种失调与多种慢性疾病的发生发展有关，包括胃肠道疾病、全身性炎症、心血管代谢疾病和神经炎症等 127。例如，对老年人的研究发现，微塑料暴露与肠道微生物群特征、微生物失调指数和肠道微生物健康指数的变化，以及某些微生物物种（如克雷伯氏菌属、大肠杆菌-志贺氏菌属）丰度的改变相关 136。
- 内分泌干扰 (Endocrine Disruption)：微塑料中添加的化学品（如增塑剂、阻燃剂等）可能从塑料基质中释放出来，作为内分泌干扰物影响人体的激素平衡 137138。这可能对生殖系统、发育和代谢产生负面影响 137。
- 物理损伤：虽然较小的微塑料颗粒不太可能造成明显的物理损伤，但较大尺寸的微塑料（如碎片、纤维）可能在胃肠道或其他组织中引起物理刺激或阻塞 129。
- 线粒体功能障碍 (Mitochondrial Dysfunction)：微塑料，特别是纳米塑料，可以进入线粒体，损伤线粒体膜，抑制线粒体呼吸，导致能量产生受损和细胞功能障碍 132139。
5.2 微塑料暴露的人体健康损伤效应
微塑料在人体内的多路径暴露和多重毒性作用机制，可能导致一系列健康损伤效应，涉及多个器官系统 128130。
呼吸系统损伤：
由于空气中微塑料的普遍存在，呼吸吸入是人体微塑料暴露的重要途径之一。微塑料在肺部的沉积可能导致呼吸系统疾病。研究表明，吸入聚酰胺微塑料可导致血管扩张受损，尽管未引起肺部炎症 138。然而，聚苯乙烯纳米塑料的吸入暴露可通过诱导局部和全身氧化应激、炎症和蛋白酶-抗蛋白酶失衡，导致慢性阻塞性肺疾病（COPD）样肺损伤 139。长期暴露还可能增加肺癌、哮喘和过敏性肺炎等呼吸道疾病的风险 128。消化系统损伤：
饮食和饮水是微塑料进入消化系统的主要途径。微塑料在胃肠道中积累可能导致胃肠道疾病，并影响肠道微生物群。研究指出，微塑料暴露与肠道炎症性疾病、肠道通透性增加、肠道微生物失调以及与肠-脑轴相关的神经炎症后果相关 127128。一项系统综述发现，微塑料和纳米塑料可引起人体胃肠道细胞体外研究中的氧化应激、线粒体功能障碍、炎症和细胞凋亡 135。神经系统损伤：
微塑料和纳米塑料可以进入神经组织，可能对神经系统产生潜在的毒性效应 131。- 认知功能障碍：聚乙烯微塑料和氧化聚乙烯微塑料暴露可导致小鼠的行为改变、肠道和血脑屏障破坏、氧化应激、炎症反应，并干扰胆碱能突触信号通路，从而导致认知功能障碍 133。
- 神经退行性疾病：微塑料能积累在神经组织，导致炎症、氧化应激和神经元损伤等有害变化，提示微塑料可能与神经退行性疾病相关 131。
- 神经发育障碍：长期暴露于聚苯乙烯纳米塑料可诱导小鼠出现注意力缺陷多动障碍（ADHD）样表型，并损害大脑老化进程，可能与ADHD和癫痫相关的基因和突触蛋白表达改变有关 140。这引发了对胎儿和儿童发育中大脑脆弱性及其潜在神经发育障碍的担忧 140。
- 精神健康影响：初步研究显示，微塑料暴露与大学生抑郁症状之间存在关联，特别是通过空气暴露途径 141。
- 肝-脑轴影响：在斑马鱼模型中，微塑料诱导的肝脏功能障碍（如炎症、酶功能障碍和脂质代谢紊乱）与神经行为毒性之间存在系统性关联，提示肝脏代谢功能障碍可能是微塑料诱导神经毒性的全身性贡献者 134。
心血管系统损伤：
微塑料和纳米塑料被认为是心血管疾病（CVD）的新型风险因素 126。生殖系统损伤：
微塑料和纳米塑料对哺乳动物的生殖能力和跨代毒性构成威胁 137。泌尿系统损伤：
肾脏是人体重要的排泄器官，微塑料也可能在此累积并诱导毒性。环境毒物，包括微塑料，已知具有肾毒性作用，可能导致炎症、氧化应激、线粒体功能障碍、自噬和细胞凋亡等多种疾病 143。其他潜在健康风险：
总体而言，微塑料对人体健康的潜在影响是多方面的，涉及从细胞分子水平到器官系统层面的广泛损伤。尽管目前大部分证据来源于动物和体外实验，但其普遍存在性和在人体组织中的发现，使得对微塑料健康风险的深入研究和评估变得尤为迫切。未来的研究需要进一步明确微塑料在人体内的剂量-效应关系、长期低剂量暴露的真实影响以及与其他环境因素的复合毒性效应。
6. 微塑料污染治理技术研究进展
面对日益严峻的微塑料污染问题，发展高效、经济的治理技术已成为全球性挑战。目前，微塑料污染治理主要分为末端治理和源头减控两大类。末端治理技术主要针对已进入环境介质中的微塑料进行去除，而源头减控技术则旨在减少微塑料的产生和排放。
6.1 末端治理技术
末端治理技术主要应用于污水处理厂、饮用水处理厂以及受污染水体和土壤等介质，以期尽可能地从环境中去除微塑料。
6.1.1 污水处理厂微塑料去除工艺升级
污水处理厂（WWTPs）是微塑料进入环境的重要汇集点和排放源 145。传统的污水处理工艺对微塑料的去除效率有限，尤其对尺寸较小的微塑料，因此，对现有工艺进行升级和开发新型高效去除技术至关重要。
一级处理的优化：
- 格栅和筛网：虽然传统格栅和筛网主要用于去除较大的固体废弃物，但通过增加筛孔的密度和减小孔径，可以有效拦截部分较大尺寸的微塑料。例如，在废水处理厂中，通过细格栅（通常孔径为1-6毫米）可以去除大部分大于1毫米的微塑料。
- 初沉池：初沉池通过重力沉降去除悬浮物，也能沉降一部分密度较大或尺寸较大的微塑料。然而，对于密度接近水的微塑料（如聚乙烯、聚丙烯）和较小的微塑料颗粒，去除效率较低。
二级处理的强化：
三级处理及深度处理技术的应用：
- 混凝-絮凝-沉淀：混凝是去除水中微塑料最关键的技术之一 147。通过添加混凝剂（如硫酸铝、氯化铁）和絮凝剂，使微塑料颗粒聚集形成较大絮体，再通过沉淀或气浮去除。该方法对较大尺寸的微塑料具有较高的去除效率，但对小于20微米或纳米级的微塑料去除效果有限 147。有研究表明，结合混凝技术可以有效地从饮用水中去除微塑料，效率超过99% 148。
- 过滤技术：
- 砂滤：砂滤是饮用水处理厂中常见的过滤单元，对微塑料具有一定的去除能力。有研究发现，砂滤在去除微塑料方面效果显著，其去除效率可达78%±9% 149。在某些饮用水处理厂中，砂滤被认为是去除微塑料最有效的过程之一，效率可达47.5% 150。
- 超滤（UF）、纳滤（NF）和反渗透（RO）：膜过滤技术，特别是超滤、纳滤和反渗透，被认为是去除微塑料和纳米塑料最有效和最有前景的先进处理技术之一 151152。这些技术通过物理屏障有效截留微塑料颗粒，可以实现对微塑料的高效去除，甚至纳米级的塑料颗粒也能有效去除 148151。超滤/反渗透（Advanced Treatment）被证明比臭氧/活性炭过滤（Upgraded Conventional Treatment）在微塑料去除方面更有效 149。
- 臭氧氧化：臭氧氧化是一种强氧化工艺，可以降解一些有机污染物，但对于微塑料的去除效果存在争议。有研究发现，臭氧氧化可能会导致部分微塑料分解成更小的碎片 153，这可能导致微塑料的次生污染。然而，臭氧与颗粒活性炭（GAC）联用被认为是去除微塑料的有效过程之一，去除率可达52.7% 150。
- 活性炭吸附：活性炭（颗粒活性炭GAC和粉末活性炭PAC）可以吸附水中的有机物和部分微塑料。其去除效率取决于微塑料的表面性质、尺寸以及活性炭的孔隙结构。
- 高级氧化工艺（AOPs）：AOPs通过产生高活性自由基来降解污染物，对于某些微塑料的去除也显示出潜力 146。
6.1.2 饮用水深度处理
饮用水中微塑料的存在已引起广泛关注，有效的深度处理技术对于保障饮水安全至关重要。
- 常规与先进工艺结合：饮用水处理厂（DWTPs）通常采用多级处理工艺，包括混凝、沉淀、过滤和消毒。研究表明，在饮用水处理厂中，混凝和砂滤是去除微塑料的关键步骤，可实现较高的去除效率 147149。然而，对于小尺寸微塑料和纳米塑料，传统工艺的去除效果有限，需要更先进的深度处理技术。
- 膜技术：如前所述，超滤、纳滤和反渗透等膜技术是饮用水深度处理中去除微塑料和纳米塑料的有效方法。它们能够提供可靠的物理屏障，有效截留各类塑料颗粒，确保出水水质 148154。
- 生物降解：尽管在饮用水深度处理中应用较少，但生物降解技术在特定条件下对微塑料的去除也显示出潜力。例如，某些微生物如Exiguobacterium sp. CAP4已被证明能够协同降解微聚乙烯和氯霉素，这为未来饮用水处理中的生物降解技术提供了新的思路 155。
- 胶体泵效应的利用：微塑料在饮用水中表现出“胶体泵效应”，即其能吸附无机物、有机物和微生物，促进其团聚和沉降 153。深入理解这一效应及其启动条件，有助于优化混凝和过滤等传统工艺，提高微塑料的去除效率 153。
6.1.3 受污染水体与土壤的原位/异位修复技术
对于已受微塑料污染的环境介质，需要采用特定的修复技术来减轻其影响。修复技术可分为原位修复（在污染地进行）和异位修复（将污染介质移除后进行处理）。
水体修复：
- 絮凝沉降与过滤：对于受污染的水体（如湖泊、河流），可以使用大型絮凝剂投加系统，通过絮凝沉降去除水中的微塑料。结合物理过滤（如生物滤池、砂滤池）可进一步提高去除效率。
- 生物修复：利用微生物或植物对微塑料进行降解，是环境友好型的修复方法。虽然微塑料的生物降解速度较慢，但通过筛选高效降解菌株或构建人工湿地等方式，可以促进微塑料的降解。
- 吸附：开发新型吸附材料，例如基于壳聚糖的吸附剂，在废水处理中被认为是去除多种污染物的有效策略，包括微塑料 156。这些材料在水体修复中也具有应用潜力。
- 物理拦截与收集：通过设置水面拦截装置、漂浮物收集系统等，可以物理性地收集水体表层的微塑料。
土壤修复：
- 机械筛分：对于土壤中较大尺寸的微塑料，可以通过机械筛分或洗涤技术将其与土壤颗粒分离。这种方法通常用于异位修复。
- 植物修复：某些植物在特定条件下可能对微塑料有吸收作用。通过种植这些植物，有望从土壤中去除部分微塑料。然而，植物修复的效率通常较低，且可能存在微塑料进入食物链的风险。
- 生物修复：一些微生物已被证明能够降解土壤中的微塑料，例如，在污染的“塑料圈”中分离出的Exiguobacterium sp. CAP4菌株，显示出降解聚乙烯（mPE）的潜力 155。通过生物强化或生物刺激等手段，可以加速土壤中微塑料的生物降解过程 155。土壤中微生物群落的装配，特别是“塑料圈”中特定微生物类群的富集，为微塑料的生物修复提供了新的思路 157。
- 稳定化/固化：通过添加特定的固化剂，将土壤中的微塑料固定在土壤基质中，减少其迁移和生物有效性。这种方法主要用于降低风险，而非彻底去除。
- 土壤淋洗：利用表面活性剂或溶剂对土壤进行淋洗，将微塑料从土壤颗粒中分离出来，再对淋洗液进行处理。
总的来说，末端治理技术在微塑料污染控制中发挥着关键作用。然而，单一技术往往难以应对所有类型的微塑料，因此，结合多种技术，构建集成化的处理系统，以及不断优化现有技术，将是未来研究和应用的重要方向。同时，需要评估这些技术在实际应用中的成本效益和环境影响。
6.2 源头减控技术
相较于末端治理，源头减控是解决微塑料污染更根本和可持续的策略。通过减少塑料制品的生产和使用，特别是难以回收利用的一次性塑料，以及促进可降解材料的替代和塑料废弃物的有效回收再利用，可以从根本上减少进入环境的微塑料总量。
6.2.1 可降解塑料替代
可降解塑料被视为减少传统塑料污染、特别是微塑料污染的“绿色希望”158。理想情况下，这类塑料能被微生物轻易同化，并在环境中消失，从而减少气候变化、微塑料和乱扔垃圾等问题159。
定义与分类：
可降解塑料是指在特定环境条件下，能够通过微生物作用，最终完全分解为二氧化碳、水和生物质的聚合物。它们可以进一步细分为生物基可降解塑料（如聚乳酸PLA、聚羟基脂肪酸酯PHA）和石油基可降解塑料（如聚己二酸/对苯二甲酸丁二酯PBAT、聚己内酯PCL）。目前，可生物降解塑料在全球塑料市场中的份额仍然很小，需要进一步的研发和商业化努力159。应用现状与优势：
面临的挑战与优化方向：
- 降解条件限制：可降解塑料的“可降解性”并非普遍适用，其降解往往需要特定的环境条件，如适宜的温度、湿度、微生物种类和氧气水平158。在自然环境中，许多可降解塑料并不能如预期般快速、完全降解，反而可能像传统塑料一样碎裂成微塑料，增加了环境负担7158。例如，聚乳酸（PLA）在土壤中需要较长时间才能降解，其降解速度远低于堆肥环境161。
- “绿色清洗”风险：对可降解塑料的夸大宣传可能导致公众对其环境效益的误解，引发“绿色清洗”的争议158。消费者可能认为可降解塑料可以随意丢弃，反而加剧了环境污染问题。
- 回收与混淆：可降解塑料与传统塑料的混合回收会干扰现有回收流程，降低回收产品的质量158。目前缺乏有效的分类系统和基础设施来区分和单独处理可降解塑料。
- 成本与性能：目前可降解塑料的生产成本通常高于传统塑料，且在某些性能上仍无法完全媲美传统塑料，限制了其大规模推广。
- 毒性与副产物：可降解塑料的降解产物是否完全无害，以及降解过程中是否会释放其他有害物质，仍需进一步研究。
- 标准与认证：现有关于可降解性的标准和测试方法不足以预测可降解塑料在自然环境中的真实降解行为158。此外，水环境可生物降解性标准未涉及毒性测试，也未考虑可降解塑料可能产生的微塑料颗粒的潜在生态影响158。
优化方向：
- 研发新型高效可降解材料：开发在更广泛自然环境下能有效降解，且降解产物无毒的塑料材料。
- 完善降解标准和认证体系：制定更严格、更符合实际环境条件的降解标准，并建立透明的认证体系，避免误导性宣传。
- 加强分类回收基础设施：发展可降解塑料的专门回收和堆肥设施，确保其在生命周期结束时得到妥善处理。
- 提高公众认知：普及可降解塑料的正确使用和处理知识，引导消费者理性选择和负责任地处置。
6.2.2 塑料废弃物分类回收与资源化利用
塑料废弃物的有效分类回收和资源化利用是实现塑料循环经济、减少微塑料污染的关键环节7162。通过将塑料从废弃物中分离出来并赋予其新的价值，可以显著减少填埋和焚烧量，降低环境污染。
分类回收现状与挑战：
资源化利用与优化方向：
资源化利用旨在将回收的废塑料转化为有价值的产品或能源，主要包括机械回收、化学回收和能源回收。机械回收 (Mechanical Recycling)：
- 现状：机械回收是最常见且最成熟的回收方法，通过对废塑料进行清洗、破碎、熔融、造粒等物理过程，制成再生塑料颗粒，用于生产新的塑料制品。
- 优势：成本相对较低，技术成熟。
- 挑战：再生塑料的性能通常低于原生塑料，且多次回收后性能会进一步下降。对塑料的纯度要求高，受污染塑料难以处理。
- 优化方向：开发更高效的塑料分选技术（如自动化光学分选）、提高再生塑料的性能改性技术，以及推广“闭环回收”模式（即再生塑料用于生产同类产品）。
化学回收 (Chemical Recycling)：
- 现状：化学回收通过热解、气化、溶解等化学方法，将废塑料分解为单体、燃料油或其他化工原料。例如，废弃聚烯烃可以通过催化热解转化为有价值的燃料和化学品165。
- 优势：可以处理受污染或混合塑料，再生产品质量接近原生塑料，甚至可以用于生产高附加值产品。能有效弥补机械回收的不足。
- 挑战：技术复杂，投资成本高，能源消耗大，产物分离提纯困难。
- 优化方向：研发更高效、低能耗的化学回收技术，探索多元化的产物转化途径，并与现有石化产业链深度融合。
能源回收 (Energy Recovery)：
- 现状：通过焚烧废塑料并回收其能量，用于发电或供热。
- 优势：减少废弃物填埋量，同时产生能源。
- 挑战：焚烧可能产生有害气体（如二噁英）和底灰，对空气质量和人体健康造成威胁164。此外，能源回收是塑料利用链中的最低级别，未能充分体现塑料作为高分子材料的价值。
- 优化方向：采用先进的焚烧技术，配备高效的尾气处理系统，最大限度减少二次污染。在其他回收方法不可行时作为最后选择。
创新利用：
系统性策略与政策支持：
通过以上源头减控措施，特别是可降解塑料的审慎应用和塑料废弃物分类回收与资源化利用的全面推广，将能有效降低微塑料进入环境的通量，从根本上缓解微塑料污染对生态环境和人类健康的威胁。
7. 微塑料污染的政策监管体系研究进展
微塑料污染的全球性、持久性和潜在危害性促使各国政府和国际组织积极探索和建立相应的政策监管体系。这些体系旨在通过立法、标准制定、国际合作等手段，从源头控制、过程管理和末端治理等多个环节，减少微塑料的排放和环境累积。
7.1 国际监管政策进展
面对微塑料这一新兴污染物，全球主要经济体和国际组织正在逐步建立和完善其监管框架，以应对日益严峻的挑战。
欧盟 (European Union)：
欧盟在微塑料监管方面处于全球领先地位，其政策体系较为全面和积极。- 限制意向性添加微塑料：欧盟化学品管理局（ECHA）于2019年提交了关于限制意向性添加微塑料的提案。该提案旨在通过《化学品注册、评估、授权和限制法案》（REACH）限制化妆品、洗涤剂、农用肥料等产品中微塑料的使用。在对该提案的利益相关者分析中，工业贸易协会和体育相关的非政府组织对实施限制提案相关的成本表示担忧 170。监管机构需要精确地评估在何种情况下，替代某些微塑料的激励措施能够刺激开发出新的、更具竞争力且环境友好的材料 171。
- 一次性塑料指令 (Single-Use Plastics Directive)：欧盟于2019年通过了《关于减少某些塑料产品对环境影响的指令》（Single-Use Plastics Directive），旨在通过禁止某些一次性塑料制品（如餐具、盘子、吸管等）和设定回收目标，减少塑料废弃物，从而间接减少微塑料的产生。
- 循环经济行动计划 (Circular Economy Action Plan)：欧盟的循环经济行动计划强调塑料的全生命周期管理，鼓励可持续设计、提高回收率和促进可生物降解材料的研发与应用。这有助于从源头减少塑料的消耗和废弃。
- 水质标准：欧盟正在修订饮用水指令，并将微塑料纳入其考虑范围，要求成员国监测饮用水中的微塑料，并评估其健康风险。
美国 (United States)：
美国在微塑料监管方面主要采取自下而上的方式，由州政府和联邦机构共同推动。- 《微珠水污染防治法案》 (Microbead-Free Waters Act)：2015年，美国通过《微珠水污染防治法案》，禁止生产和销售含有塑料微珠的冲洗型化妆品和非处方药，这是美国联邦层面首个针对微塑料的限制性法规。
- 加利福尼亚州案例：加州在微塑料监管方面走在前列。加州已作为案例研究，说明了需要科学家、监管机构和政策制定者之间开放合作，以应对微塑料这一新兴污染物带来的环境和健康影响 172。
- 联邦层面行动：美国环境保护署（EPA）和国家海洋和大气管理局（NOAA）等联邦机构通过资助研究、发布指南等方式，推动对微塑料污染的科学认知和管理策略的制定。然而，与欧盟相比，美国联邦层面的微塑料全面监管框架仍在发展中，缺乏统一的国家级立法。
联合国环境规划署 (UNEP) 和国际合作：
国际组织和多边合作在全球微塑料治理中扮演着关键角色。- 全球海洋垃圾伙伴关系 (Global Partnership on Marine Litter, GPML)：由联合国环境规划署主导的GPML旨在促进全球在海洋垃圾和塑料污染方面的合作，分享最佳实践，并支持各国制定行动计划。
- 联合国环境大会 (UNEA)：联合国环境大会多次通过关于塑料污染的决议，呼吁各国加强合作，减少塑料废弃物对环境的危害。最新的发展是，2022年第五届联合国环境大会（UNEA-5.2）通过了一项具有历史意义的决议，启动谈判制定一项具有法律约束力的全球塑料污染协议，旨在解决塑料产品生命周期的全过程问题，包括微塑料。
- 科研合作与数据共享：国际层面还通过资助跨国研究项目、建立数据库和共享监测数据等方式，推动全球对微塑料污染的科学理解，为政策制定提供科学依据。例如，需要开放科学家、监管机构和决策者之间的合作，以应对微塑料这一新兴污染物带来的环境和健康影响 172。
其他国家和地区：
- 加拿大：加拿大在2016年将塑料微珠列为有毒物质，并于2018年全面禁止其生产、进口、销售。
- 英国：英国于2018年禁止销售含有塑料微珠的冲洗型个人护理产品。
- 非洲：非洲地区也逐渐关注微塑料污染问题，并开始探讨其在当地的发生、形成、归趋和毒性，但目前其监管政策和实践仍处于早期阶段，需要加强区域和国际合作以及跨学科研究，以制定有效的干预政策和实践，特别是建议对消费品中的微塑料进行具体监管 173。
总体而言，国际社会在微塑料监管方面已取得初步进展，主要集中在限制初生微塑料和一次性塑料产品。然而，由于微塑料的高度复杂性和不确定性，传统的基于风险的监管框架面临挑战，需要创新性的策略和多方利益攸关者（包括科学家、监管机构、决策者、产业界和公众）之间的开放合作 172。未来的国际监管将趋向于更全面的全球性协议，以解决塑料产品生命周期的全过程问题。
7.2 我国监管体系建设现状与优化方向
中国作为全球最大的塑料生产国和消费国之一，长期以来面临着严峻的塑料污染挑战。近年来，中国政府高度重视塑料污染治理，出台了一系列政策法规，并积极探索建立符合国情的微塑料监管体系。
我国现有塑料污染治理相关政策、检测标准、管控要求的实施成效：
政策法规体系的逐步完善：
- “限塑令”的升级与扩展：中国于2008年首次实施“限塑令”，禁止超市、商场等场所免费提供塑料购物袋。2020年，国家发展改革委和生态环境部联合发布《关于进一步加强塑料污染治理的意见》（新“限塑令”），将治理范围扩大到快递、外卖等新兴领域，并明确了不同时间节点禁止、限制生产、销售和使用一次性塑料制品的具体要求。例如，到2025年，中国所有快递包裹将禁止使用不可降解的塑料包装袋、一次性塑料编织袋，并减少使用一次性塑料胶带。这些政策旨在从源头减少塑料制品的消耗和废弃，间接降低微塑料的产生。
- 海洋塑料垃圾治理：针对海洋微塑料污染，中国也在积极采取措施。例如，《海洋环境保护法》明确了海洋垃圾的防治责任。国家层面也出台了《中国防治海洋垃圾行动方案》，强调加强源头管控、完善回收处理体系、开展监测评估和国际合作。
- 农业农村塑料污染治理：针对农用薄膜等农业塑料污染问题，中国实施了《农用薄膜管理办法》，旨在规范农膜的生产、销售、使用和回收，减少农膜残留对土壤的污染，从而降低农田微塑料的来源。
- 废弃物管理政策：中国推动垃圾分类制度，并出台相关政策鼓励塑料废弃物的回收利用和资源化。例如，2016年发布的《“十三五”生态环境保护规划》将塑料污染治理纳入重要内容。
检测标准和监测工作的推进：
- 标准制定：中国在微塑料检测方法方面取得进展，发布了《海洋沉积物中微塑料的测定 密度分离-显微红外光谱法》（HJ 1085—2019）等标准，为海洋环境中微塑料的监测和研究提供了技术支撑。然而，针对水体、土壤和生物样本的微塑料检测标准仍在不断完善中。
- 监测评估：中国已在渤海、黄海、东海、南海以及主要河口等海域开展了微塑料污染调查和研究，发现微塑料在水体和沉积物中广泛分布，其中珠江口和渤海的污染最为严重。中国内陆水系统（如河流和湖泊）的微塑料污染也引起了广泛关注，其丰度、分布特征和潜在生态风险已成为研究热点 174175176。这些监测数据为评估污染状况和制定针对性政策提供了科学依据。
- 回收率提升：自2016年，即“十三五”规划开始以来，中国的塑料政策在全国和国际层面应对塑料问题上取得了显著进展。塑料产品的生产和消费增长趋势有所放缓，回收率有所上升，在2021年超过30% 177。
当前监管体系的不足与未来完善方向：
尽管中国在微塑料污染治理方面取得了显著进展，但仍存在一些挑战和不足，需要进一步优化和完善。
缺乏统一的微塑料定义和检测标准：
- 不足：目前国内在微塑料的粒径范围、分类方法以及不同环境介质（如水、土壤、空气、生物样本）的标准化检测方法方面仍存在差异和空白，导致不同研究结果之间难以比较，也限制了监管的有效性。
- 优化方向：加快制定和发布统一的微塑料检测、监测和风险评估标准体系，特别是针对纳米塑料和复杂基质样本的检测方法。
源头管控力度有待加强：
- 不足：虽然“限塑令”有所升级，但在一次性塑料制品（特别是外卖、快递包装）的消费量依然庞大，且部分地区和行业执行力有待提高。农用薄膜的回收率仍面临挑战，许多废弃农膜未能有效回收。此外，对化妆品和洗涤剂等产品中微塑料微珠的全面禁止尚未完全实现。
- 优化方向：
- 强化政策执行：加强对“限塑令”等政策的监督执法，提高违规成本。
- 推广可替代材料：加大对可生物降解材料、可重复利用材料的研发和推广支持力度，特别是用于农业、快递和外卖等重点领域。
- 全生命周期管理：借鉴欧盟经验，将微塑料管理纳入更广泛的塑料全生命周期管理框架，推动产品设计生态化，减少塑料制品中不必要的添加剂。
回收利用体系不完善：
- 不足：塑料废弃物的分类回收体系仍不够成熟，回收效率和再生利用率仍有提升空间。特别是农村地区的塑料回收设施和管理相对薄弱。
- 优化方向：
- 完善回收基础设施：增加回收点，推广智能回收设备，提高社区和农村地区塑料废弃物的回收便利性。
- 提升再生利用技术：加大对机械回收和化学回收等再生利用技术的研发投入，提高再生塑料的品质和应用范围，实现高值化利用。
- 建立生产者责任延伸制度：明确塑料制品生产商在产品生命周期结束后的回收和处理责任，激励企业参与回收体系建设。
对新兴污染源的关注不足：
- 不足：轮胎磨损、纺织品洗涤、建筑材料老化等新兴微塑料污染源尚未得到足够重视，相关排放标准和控制措施相对缺乏。
- 优化方向：开展对新兴微塑料污染源的识别、量化和风险评估，研究制定相应的排放标准和控制技术。
缺乏系统性的风险评估和健康影响研究：
- 不足：中国在微塑料对生态环境和人体健康影响方面的研究虽然有所进展，但仍缺乏长期、大规模、多学科的综合性风险评估，尤其是对人体健康风险的剂量-效应关系研究尚不充分。
- 优化方向：整合科研资源，加强跨学科合作，深入开展微塑料对水生生态系统、土壤生态系统和人体健康的长期影响研究，为政策制定提供更坚实的科学依据。
公众参与和意识提升：
- 不足：公众对微塑料污染的认知和参与度仍有提升空间，尤其是在塑料制品减量化和正确分类回收方面的行动力有待提高。
- 优化方向：加强科普宣传，提高公众对微塑料危害的认识，鼓励消费者采取可持续的消费行为，形成全社会共同参与塑料污染治理的良好氛围。
总体而言，中国在微塑料污染监管方面已初步构建了政策框架，并取得了一定成效。然而，要全面有效应对微塑料挑战，中国需要进一步深化改革，加强科技支撑，完善法律法规，并积极参与国际合作，形成一个全面、协调、可持续的微塑料全生命周期管理体系。这包括更好地整合政策、垂直-水平治理相结合的管理模式、追踪系统的实施、引入质量认证体系、发展以行为为导向的消费者解决方案以及促进利益相关者的合作 177。针对海洋微塑料污染，还需要进一步深化微塑料的源-汇过程研究，并加强相关政策的制定和实施 174178。
8. 研究不足与未来展望
微塑料研究作为一个新兴且快速发展的领域，尽管在环境赋存、检测方法、生态和健康风险以及治理技术和政策监管方面取得了显著进展，但仍存在诸多研究不足和挑战。克服这些短板，将是未来推动微塑料科学发展和有效应对其全球性威胁的关键。
纳米级微塑料检测的短板与挑战：
当前研究的显著不足之一在于纳米塑料（NPs）的检测与表征能力。尽管纳米塑料被认为可能比微塑料具有更高的生物有效性和潜在毒性，但其尺寸极小、含量极低、基质复杂以及缺乏标准化检测方法，使得对其的准确识别和定量仍然极具挑战性 179180181。
- 高灵敏度与低检测限的需求：目前的检测技术，如拉曼光谱和傅里叶变换红外光谱，在纳米尺度下的灵敏度有限，且易受荧光背景等因素干扰。虽然热解气相色谱-质谱（Py-GC/MS）等技术具有较高灵敏度，但其对纳米塑料的直接形态学表征能力较弱，且前处理过程可能改变颗粒性质。
- 复杂基质的干扰：在环境样品（特别是水体和土壤）和生物/人体样品中，纳米塑料需要从大量的无机颗粒和有机质中分离出来。这要求开发更高效、温和且无污染的分离富集方法，以确保纳米塑料的完整性和代表性。
- 标准化方法的缺乏：缺乏统一的样品采集、前处理、检测和数据分析标准，导致不同研究结果之间可比性差，阻碍了对纳米塑料污染状况的全面评估和风险评估。
- 真实环境样品的局限性：许多纳米塑料毒性研究仍依赖于商业可得的球形聚苯乙烯纳米颗粒，而这些颗粒并不能完全代表真实环境中形态、组成和表面性质复杂的纳米塑料 180。真实环境纳米塑料的制备和表征也是一大难题。
人体暴露剂量-效应关系研究的短板：
尽管越来越多的研究揭示了微塑料对人体健康的潜在危害，但关于微塑料在人体内的暴露剂量、毒性效应以及剂量-效应关系仍存在显著的知识空白。
- 人体流行病学数据的匮乏：目前，微塑料对人体健康影响的大部分证据来自体外细胞和动物研究，缺乏大规模、长期的人体流行病学研究数据 182。这使得将动物实验结果外推到人类面临挑战，难以建立真实的因果关系和明确暴露阈值。
- 暴露剂量量化的不准确性：人体通过饮水、食物、呼吸和皮肤接触等多种途径暴露于微塑料，但准确量化总暴露剂量，特别是考虑纳米塑料的贡献，仍是一个难题。如何精确评估个体差异（如年龄、性别、生活习惯、地理位置）对暴露剂量的影响，也需要更深入的研究。
- 长期低剂量暴露效应的不确定性：微塑料在环境中普遍存在，人类面临的是长期、低剂量的慢性暴露。这种慢性暴露可能导致的累积效应和潜在的慢性疾病风险尚未完全阐明 126182。例如，微塑料与慢性炎症、氧化应激和代谢紊乱等慢性病发生的关联研究仍在初期阶段 182183。
- 复合毒性效应的复杂性：微塑料常常与其他环境污染物（如重金属、持久性有机污染物、病原体）共存，并可能作为这些污染物的载体，形成复杂的复合污染。研究微塑料与其他污染物协同作用、拮抗作用或叠加作用对人体健康的影响，是当前亟需解决的科学问题。
- 个体易感性与基因差异：不同个体对微塑料暴露的反应可能存在差异，这可能与遗传背景、生活方式和健康状况等因素有关。研究个体易感性将有助于精准评估不同人群的健康风险。
多介质协同治理技术的短板：
现有微塑料治理技术在末端处理和源头减控方面均取得了进展，但在多介质协同治理方面仍显不足。
- 技术集成与优化：针对水体、土壤、大气等不同环境介质的微塑料污染，现有治理技术往往是单一介质的解决方案，缺乏多介质协同治理的整体性策略。例如，污水处理厂去除的微塑料最终转移到污泥中，污泥的农用处置可能又将微塑料带入土壤，形成二次污染。
- 纳米塑料的去除：目前大多数末端治理技术（如污水处理和饮用水处理）对纳米塑料的去除效率有限。开发能高效去除纳米塑料的经济可行技术，仍然是巨大的挑战。
- 生物降解技术的限制：可降解塑料在自然环境中的降解条件苛刻，且降解速度慢，其“可降解性”往往未能充分实现，仍可能形成微塑料。生物修复技术在实践中也面临效率和环境适应性等问题。
- 成本效益与可持续性：高效的微塑料治理技术往往成本高昂，且可能产生二次污染。开发经济可行、环境友好且可持续的多介质协同治理技术，是未来重要的研究方向。
- 政策监管的协调性：不同介质、不同来源的微塑料污染，在政策监管上缺乏统一性和协同性，难以形成全链条、全生命周期的有效管理。
未来重点研究方向与跨领域协作路径：
为应对上述挑战，未来的微塑料研究需要加强跨领域协作，并聚焦以下重点方向：
纳米塑料的精确检测与表征：
- 开发高灵敏度、低检测限、标准化且具备形态学表征能力的纳米塑料检测技术，如基于先进光谱、质谱、电化学和纳米成像的新型方法。
- 研究纳米塑料在复杂环境介质和生物体内的行为特征、转化机制和归趋。
人体暴露与健康风险的深度评估：
- 开展大规模、长期的人体流行病学研究，建立微塑料暴露与特定疾病发生发展之间的因果关系。
- 通过生物监测技术，更准确地量化人体内微塑料的累积水平，并与健康结局联系起来。
- 深入研究微塑料在人体内的吸收、分布、代谢和排泄（ADME）过程，特别是纳米塑料穿透生物屏障（如血脑屏障、胎盘屏障）的机制。
- 探索微塑料对人体免疫系统、神经系统、内分泌系统、生殖系统以及肠道微生物群的长期、低剂量影响。
- 研究微塑料与其他污染物（如重金属、内分泌干扰物）的复合毒性效应。
多介质协同治理与源头减控创新：
- 开发针对水-土-气多介质环境的微塑料协同去除技术，实现高效、低成本、无二次污染的综合治理方案。
- 加快研发在自然环境下快速、完全生物降解且降解产物无毒的新型高分子材料，并完善其降解标准和认证体系。
- 创新塑料废弃物资源化利用技术，特别是化学回收和高值化利用，提高塑料循环经济的效率。
- 探索微塑料（特别是轮胎磨损颗粒、纺织纤维等）新兴排放源的控制技术和管理策略。
生态风险评估与预测：
- 开展微塑料对不同生态系统（特别是土壤生态系统和淡水生态系统）中关键物种、群落结构和生态系统功能影响的长期研究。
- 建立基于环境相关浓度和暴露途径的微塑料生态毒性效应预测模型，评估其对生物多样性和生态系统服务的影响。
政策监管与社会参与：
通过这些努力，微塑料研究将能够从目前的描述性阶段向预测性、机制性研究迈进，为全球微塑料污染的有效管理和人类健康福祉提供坚实的科学基础。
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参考文献
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Olubukola S. Alimi, Jeffrey M. Farner, Laura M. Hernandez, et al.
Plastic litter is widely acknowledged as a global environmental threat, and poor management and disposal lead to increasing levels in the environment. Of recent concern is the degradation of plastics from macro- to micro- and even to nanosized particles smaller than 100 nm in size. At the nanoscale, plastics are difficult to detect and can be transported in air, soil, and water compartments. While the impact of plastic debris on marine and fresh waters and organisms has been studied, the loads, transformations, transport, and fate of plastics in terrestrial and subsurface environments are largely overlooked. In this Critical Review, we first present estimated loads of plastics in different environmental compartments. We also provide a critical review of the current knowledge vis-à-vis nanoplastic (NP) and microplastic (MP) aggregation, deposition, and contaminant cotransport in the environment. Important factors that affect aggregation and deposition in natural subsurface environments are identified and critically analyzed. Factors affecting contaminant sorption onto plastic debris are discussed, and we show how polyethylene generally exhibits a greater sorption capacity than other plastic types. Finally, we highlight key knowledge gaps that need to be addressed to improve our ability to predict the risks associated with these ubiquitous contaminants in the environment by understanding their mobility, aggregation behavior and their potential to enhance the transport of other pollutants.
2Presence of microplastics and nanoplastics in food, with particular focus on seafoodOpenAlex
EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM)
Following a request from the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), the EFSA Panel for Contaminants in the Food Chain was asked to deliver a statement on the presence of microplastics and nanoplastics in food, with particular focus on seafood. Primary microplastics are plastics originally manufactured to be that size, while secondary microplastics originate from fragmentation. Nanoplastics can originate from engineered material or can be produced during fragmentation of microplastic debris. Microplastics range from 0.1 to 5,000 μm and nanoplastics from approximately 1 to 100 nm (0.001-0.1 μm). There is no legislation for microplastics and nanoplastics as contaminants in food. Methods are available for identification and quantification of microplastics in food, including seafood. Occurrence data are limited. In contrast to microplastics no methods or occurrence data in food are available for nanoplastics. Microplastics can contain on average 4% of additives and the plastics can adsorb contaminants. Both additives and contaminants can be of organic as well of inorganic nature. Based on a conservative estimate the presence of microplastics in seafood would have a small effect on the overall exposure to additives or contaminants. Toxicity and toxicokinetic data are lacking for both microplastics and nanoplastics for a human risk assessment. It is recommended that analytical methods should be further developed for microplastics and developed for nanoplastics and standardised, in order to assess their presence, identity and to quantify their amount in food. Furthermore, quality assurance should be in place and demonstrated. For microplastics and nanoplastics, occurrence data in food, including effects of food processing, in particular, for the smaller sized particles (< 150 μm) should be generated. Research on the toxicokinetics and toxicity, including studies on local effects in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, are needed as is research on the degradation of microplastics and potential formation of nanoplastics in the human GI tract.
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Brian Nguyen, Dominique Claveau-Mallet, Laura M. Hernandez, et al.
The vast amount of plastic waste emitted into the environment and the increasing concern of potential harm to wildlife has made microplastic and nanoplastic pollution a growing environmental concern. Plastic pollution has the potential to cause both physical and chemical harm to wildlife directly or via sorption, concentration, and transfer of other environmental contaminants to the wildlife that ingest plastic. Small particles of plastic pollution, termed microplastics (>100 nm and <5 mm) or nanoplastics (<100 nm), can form through fragmentation of larger pieces of plastic. These small particles are especially concerning because of their high specific surface area for sorption of contaminants as well as their potential to translocate in the bodies of organisms. These same small particles are challenging to separate and identify in environmental samples because their size makes handling and observation difficult. As a result, our understanding of the environmental prevalence of nanoplastics and microplastics is limited. Generally, the smaller the size of the plastic particle, the more difficult it is to separate from environmental samples. Currently employed passive density and size separation techniques to isolate plastics from environmental samples are not well suited to separate microplastics and nanoplastics. Passive flotation is hindered by the low buoyancy of small particles as well as the difficulty of handling small particles on the surface of flotation media. Here we suggest exploring alternative techniques borrowed from other fields of research to improve separation of the smallest plastic particles. These techniques include adapting active density separation (centrifugation) from cell biology and taking advantage of surface-interaction-based separations from analytical chemistry. Furthermore, plastic pollution is often challenging to quantify in complex matrices such as biological tissues and wastewater. Biological and wastewater samples are important matrices that represent key points in the fate and sources of plastic pollution, respectively. In both kinds of samples, protocols need to be optimized to increase throughput, reduce contamination potential, and avoid destruction of plastics during sample processing. To this end, we recommend adapting digestion protocols to match the expected composition of the nonplastic material as well as taking measures to reduce and account for contamination. Once separated, plastics in an environmental sample should ideally be characterized both visually and chemically. With existing techniques, microplastics and nanoplastics are difficult to characterize or even detect. Their low mass and small size provide limited signal for visual, vibrational spectroscopic, and mass spectrometric analyses. Each of these techniques involves trade-offs in throughput, spatial resolution, and sensitivity. To accurately identify and completely quantify microplastics and nanoplastics in environmental samples, multiple analytical techniques applied in tandem are likely to be required.
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Jessica Caldwell, Patricia Taladriz-Blanco, Roman Lehner, et al.
Chemosphere. 2022 Apr;293:133514. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.133514. Epub 2022 Jan 8.
Plastic particle pollution has been shown to be almost completely ubiquitous within our surrounding environment. This ubiquity in combination with a variety of unique properties (e.g. density, hydrophobicity, surface functionalization, particle shape and size, transition temperatures, and mechanical properties) and the ever-increasing levels of plastic production and use has begun to garner heightened levels of interest within the scientific community. However, as a result of these properties, plastic particles are often reported to be challenging to study in complex (i.e. real) environments. Therefore, this review aims to summarize research generated on multiple facets of the micro- and nanoplastics field; ranging from size and shape definitions to detection and characterization techniques to generating reference particles; in order to provide a more complete understanding of the current strategies for the analysis of plastic particles. This information is then used to provide generalized recommendations for researchers to consider as they attempt to study plastics in analytically complex environments; including method validation using reference particles obtained via the presented creation methods, encouraging efforts towards method standardization through the reporting of all technical details utilized in a study, and providing analytical pathway recommendations depending upon the exact knowledge desired and samples being studied.
5[Current situation and health harmful effects of microplastics in the environment].PubMed
X H Lin, J P Li, X Hu
Zhonghua Lao Dong Wei Sheng Zhi Ye Bing Za Zhi. 2020 Feb 20;38(2):153-156. doi: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.1001-9391.2020.02.019.
As an emerging environmental pollutant, microplastics have attracted more and more attention for its influence on the ecological environment and human health. Due to its wide range of usage and production, difficult degradation and other characteristics, as well as the continuous and substantial increase in the use of plastic products, the number of plastic fragments in the environment continues to increase, which leads to the accumulation of microplastics in the environment and organisms, spread through the food chain, and ultimately poses a threat to human health. At the same time, in the plastic production, synthetic textile, and other industries, the incidence of workers related occupational diseases greatly increased. In this paper, the concept, classification, source, impact on biological and human health of microplastics are summarized, and propose solutions on the current situation of microplastics pollution in China, we hope this review could provide effective reference for further carry out risk assessment of microplastics pollution on human health and formulate legislation to control microplastics pollution.
6Transitioning to Microplastic-Free Seed Coatings: Challenges and Solutions.PubMed
Rozenn Langlet, Romain Valentin, Marie Morard, et al.
Polymers (Basel). 2024 Jul 10;16(14):1969. doi: 10.3390/polym16141969.
This review addresses the issue of replacing manufactured microplastics in seed coatings used in agriculture. Firstly, it focuses on the policy and regulatory actions taken on microplastics at a global level. There is no consensus within the scientific community on the definition of a microplastic and, more generally, on the classification of plastic debris. Nevertheless, several decision schemes have been proposed in an attempt to define the notion of microplastics. The different criteria relevant to this definition, such as the size, physical state, chemical structure, origin, and persistence of microplastics, are discussed, with a comparison being made between the REACH regulation and the scientific literature. Seed production and processing are also discussed, with the functions of seed coatings being explained in order to gain a better understanding of the properties to be considered in a substitution strategy for currently used microplastics. The main challenges are multiple; substitutes must provide the same performance as microplastics: (i) improving the adherence of the treatment to the seed, (ii) distributing the treatment more evenly over the seed, (iii) reducing the amount of dust-off when handling treated seed, and (iv) improving the seed flowability, which is particularly important during the sowing stage, all while preserving the physiological properties of the seed. Substitute polymers are proposed according to the desired performance and functional properties: two main chemical families of biopolymers were identified in the literature: polysaccharides and proteins. Among them, 13 and 6 polymers, respectively, complied with REACH regulation, demonstrating adhesion, dust reduction performances, and preservation of seed physiological quality in particular. This work aims to guide future studies on microplastic substitution in seed coatings, and to highlight research needs in this area. It is based on an analysis and discussion of the literature, identifying and listing potential substitutes.
7Plastic pollution and potential solutions.PubMed
Christopher J Rhodes
Sci Prog. 2018 Sep 1;101(3):207-260. doi: 10.3184/003685018X15294876706211. Epub 2018 Jul 19.
A review is presented of the manufacture and use of different types of plastic, and the effects of pollution by these materials on animal, human and environmental health, insofar as this is known. Since 2004, the world has made as much plastic as it did in the previous half century, and it has been reckoned that the total mass of virgin plastics ever made amounts to 8.3 billion tonnes, mainly derived from natural gas and crude oil, used as chemical feedstocks and fuel sources. Between 1950 and 2015, a total of 6.3 billion tonnes of primary and secondary (recycled) plastic waste was generated, of which around 9% has been recycled, and 12% incinerated, with the remaining 79% either being stored in landfills or having been released directly into the natural environment. In 2015, 407 million tonnes (Mt) of plastic was produced, of which 164 Mt was consumed by packaging (36% of the total). Although quoted values vary, packaging probably accounts for around one third of all plastics used, of which approximately 40% goes to landfill, while 32% escapes the collection system. It has been deduced that around 9 Mt of plastic entered the oceans in 2010, as a result of mismanaged waste, along with up to 0.5 Mt each of microplastics from washing synthetic textiles, and from the abrasion of tyres on road surfaces. However, the amount of plastics actually measured in the oceans represents less than 1% of the (at least) 150 Mt reckoned to have been released into the oceans over time. Plastic accounts for around 10% by mass of municipal waste, but up to 85% of marine debris items - most of which arrive from land-based sources. Geographically, the five heaviest plastic polluters are P. R. China, Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam and Sri Lanka, which between them contribute 56% of global plastic waste. Larger, primary plastic items can undergo progressive fragmentation to yield a greater number of increasingly smaller 'secondary' microplastic particles, thus increasing the overall surface area of the plastic material, which enhances its ability to absorb, and concentrate, persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), with the potential to transfer them to the tissues of animals that ingest the microplastic particles, particularly in marine environments. Although fears that such microparticles and their toxins may be passed food webs to humans are not as yet substantiated, the direct ingestion of microplastics by humans drinking water is a distinct possibility - since 92% of samples taken in the USA and 72% in Europe showed their presence - although any consequent health effects are as yet unclear. Foodstuffs may also become contaminated by microplastics from the air, although any consequent health effects are also unknown. In regard to such airborne sources, it is noteworthy that small plastic particles have been found in human lung tissue, which might prove an adverse health issue under given circumstances. It is also very striking that microplastics have been detected in mountain soils in Switzerland, which are most likely windborne in origin. Arctic ice core samples too have revealed the presence of microplastics, which were most likely carried on ocean currents from the Pacific garbage patch, and from local pollution from shipping and fishing. Thus, sea ice traps large amounts of microplastics and transports them across the Arctic Ocean, but these particles will be released into the global environment when the ice melts, particularly under the influence of a rising mean global temperature. While there is a growing emphasis toward the substitution of petrochemically derived plastics by bioplastics, controversy has arisen in regard to how biodegradable the latter actually are in the open environment, and they presently only account for 0.5% of the total mass of plastics manufactured globally. Since the majority of bioplastics are made from sugar and starch materials, to expand their use significantly raises the prospect of competition between growing crops to supply food or plastics, similarly to the diversion of food crops for the manufacture of primary biofuels. The use of oxo-plastics, which contain additives that assist the material to degrade, is also a matter of concern, since it is claimed that they merely fragment and add to the environmental burden of microplastics; hence, the European Union has moved to restrict their use. Since 6% of the current global oil (including natural gas liquids, NGLs) production is used to manufacture plastic commodities - predicted to rise to 20% by 2050 - the current approaches for the manufacture and use of plastics (including their end-use) demand immediate revision. More extensive collection and recycling of plastic items at the end of their life, for re-use in new production, to offset the use of virgin plastic, is a critical aspect both for reducing the amount of plastic waste entering the environment, and in improving the efficiency of fossil resource use. This is central to the ideology underpinning the circular economy, which has common elements with permaculture, the latter being a regenerative design system based on 'nature as teacher', which could help optimise the use of resources in town and city environments, while minimising and repurposing 'waste'. Thus, food might be produced more on the local than the global scale, with smaller inputs of fuels (including transportation fuels for importing and distributing food), water and fertilisers, and with a marked reduction in the use of plastic packaging. Such an approach, adopted by billions of individuals, could prove of immense significance in ensuring future food security, and in reducing waste and pollution - of all kinds.
8Microplastic's story.PubMed
Chiara Schmid, Luca Cozzarini, Elena Zambello
Mar Pollut Bull. 2021 Jan;162:111820. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111820. Epub 2020 Nov 14.
The problem of microplastic pollution is now the order of the day in front of everyone's eyes affecting the environment and the health of leaving creature. This work aims to retrace the history of microplastics in a critical way through a substantial bibliographic collection, defining the points still unresolved and those that can be resolved. Presence of marine litter in different environments is reviewed on a global scale, focusing in particular on micro and macro plastics definition, classification and characterization techniques.
9Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Atheromas and Cardiovascular EventsOpenAlex
Raffaele Marfella, Francesco Prattichizzo, Celestino Sardu, et al.
BACKGROUND: Microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) are emerging as a potential risk factor for cardiovascular disease in preclinical studies. Direct evidence that this risk extends to humans is lacking. METHODS: We conducted a prospective, multicenter, observational study involving patients who were undergoing carotid endarterectomy for asymptomatic carotid artery disease. The excised carotid plaque specimens were analyzed for the presence of MNPs with the use of pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, stable isotope analysis, and electron microscopy. Inflammatory biomarkers were assessed with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunohistochemical assay. The primary end point was a composite of myocardial infarction, stroke, or death from any cause among patients who had evidence of MNPs in plaque as compared with patients with plaque that showed no evidence of MNPs. RESULTS: A total of 304 patients were enrolled in the study, and 257 completed a mean (±SD) follow-up of 33.7±6.9 months. Polyethylene was detected in carotid artery plaque of 150 patients (58.4%), with a mean level of 21.7±24.5 μg per milligram of plaque; 31 patients (12.1%) also had measurable amounts of polyvinyl chloride, with a mean level of 5.2±2.4 μg per milligram of plaque. Electron microscopy revealed visible, jagged-edged foreign particles among plaque macrophages and scattered in the external debris. Radiographic examination showed that some of these particles included chlorine. Patients in whom MNPs were detected within the atheroma were at higher risk for a primary end-point event than those in whom these substances were not detected (hazard ratio, 4.53; 95% confidence interval, 2.00 to 10.27; P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: In this study, patients with carotid artery plaque in which MNPs were detected had a higher risk of a composite of myocardial infarction, stroke, or death from any cause at 34 months of follow-up than those in whom MNPs were not detected. (Funded by Programmi di Ricerca Scientifica di Rilevante Interesse Nazionale and others; ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT05900947.).
12A comparative study of soil microplastic pollution sources: a reviewOpenAlex
Rogers Wainkwa Chia, Jin‐Yong Lee, Jihye Cha, et al.
Recently, the use of plastics has become more widespread due to the vital role they play in daily life and human health. Plastic decomposes into microplastic (MP) in the soil. Owing to the negative consequences of soil MPs' growth on both soil and human health, several studies conducted over the past 10 years have concentrated on identifying and tracking the origins of MPs in soil. These studies have demonstrated that soil MPs originate from a range of sources, including plastic films, fertilizers, runoff, sewage sludge, irrigation, and the atmosphere. Despite the efforts made to identify specific sources of soil MPs, a thorough analysis and comparison of the primary sources is still absent. By assembling the results of earlier research that demonstrate how irrigation, the atmosphere, and sewage sludge all contribute to the richness of soil MP, this review will aid in filling this knowledge gap. The MP abundance from each of these sources was compared using an analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results of this investigation showed that plastic films are the largest and most significant contributors to soil microplastic contamination, owing to human overdependence on plastic films . Air deposition is the least common source of MPs . The amount of MP did not differ noticeably across irrigation, runoff, sewage sludge, and plastic film. This is because no nterference occurs when MPs from these sources interact with the soil. The findings of this study will be useful for choosing effective management and control techniques for sources of soil MP.
13A comprehensive review of urban microplastic pollution sources, environment and human health impacts, and regulatory effortsOpenAlex
Jin‐Yong Lee, Jin-Yong Lee, Rogers Wainkwa Chia, et al.
Microplastic (MP) pollution in urban environments is a pervasive and complex problem with significant environmental and human health implications. Although studies have been conducted on MP pollution in urban environments, there are still research gaps in understanding the exact sources, regulation, and impact of urban MP on the environment and public health. Therefore, the goal of this study is to provide a comprehensive overview of the complex pathways, harmful effects, and regulatory efforts of urban MP pollution. It discusses the research challenges and suggests future directions for addressing MPs related to environmental issues in urban settings. In this study, original research papers published from 2010 to 2024 across ten database categories, including PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Web of Science, were selected and reviewed to improve our understanding of urban MP pollution. The analysis revealed multifaceted sources of MPs, including surface runoff, wastewater discharge, atmospheric deposition, and biological interactions, which contribute to the contamination of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. MPs pose a threat to marine and terrestrial life, freshwater organisms, soil health, plant communities, and human health through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal exposure. Current regulatory measures for MP pollution include improved waste management, upgraded wastewater treatment, stormwater management, product innovation, public awareness campaigns, and community engagement. Despite these regulatory measures, several challenges such as; the absence of standardized MPs testing methods, MPs enter into the environment through a multitude of sources and pathways, countries struggle in balancing trade interests with environmental concerns have hindered effective policy implementation and enforcement. Addressing MP pollution in urban environments is essential for preserving ecosystems, safeguarding public health, and advancing sustainable development. Interdisciplinary collaboration, innovative research, stringent regulations, and public participation are vital for mitigating this critical issue and ensuring a cleaner and healthier future for urban environments and the planet.
15Suspended microplastics in the surface water of the Yangtze Estuary System, China: First observations on occurrence, distributionOpenAlex
Shiye Zhao, Lixin Zhu, Teng Wang, et al.
Levels of microplastics (MPs) in China are completely unknown. This study characterizes suspended MPs quantitatively and qualitatively for the Yangtze Estuary and East China Sea. MPs were extracted via a floatation method. MPs were counted and categorized according to shape and size under a stereomicroscope. The MP densities were 4137.3±2461.5 and 0.167±0.138 n/m(3), respectively, in the estuarine and the sea samples. Plastic abundances varied significantly in the estuary. Higher densities in three sea trawls confirmed that rivers were the important sources of MP to the marine environment. Plastic particles (>5mm) were observed with a maximum size of 12.46 mm, but MPs (0.5-5 mm) constituted more than 90% by number of items. The most frequent geometries were fibres, followed by granules and films. Plastic spherules occurred sparsely. Transparent and coloured plastics comprised the majority of the particles. This study provides clues in understanding the fate and potential sources of MPs.
17Occurrence and distribution of microplastics in the surface water and sediment of two typical estuaries in Bohai Bay, ChinaOpenAlex
Nan Wu, Ying Zhang, Xiaohan Zhang, et al.
Estuaries are considered to be seriously polluted by microplastics. As the most important water body in North China, the pollution level of microplastics in two typical estuaries (Haihe Estuary (HHE) and Yondingxinhe Estuary (YDXE)) of Bohai Bay is not well understood. The occurrence and distribution of microplastics in the surface water and sediment of HHE and YDXE were investigated. The mean concentration of microplastics in surface-water samples was 1485.7 ± 819.9 items per m3 for HHE and 788.0 ± 464.2 items per m3 for YDXE, respectively, whereas the concentration of microplastics in sediment was 216.1 ± 92.1 items per kg dw for HHE and 85.0 ± 40.1 items per kg dw for YDXE, respectively. The concentration of microplastics in surface-water and sediment-samples of HHE was higher than that of YDXE, though YDXE is a typical sewage-received river. Anthropogenic activities and the river input were the main sources of microplastic pollution in estuarine areas. Sewage rivers could be point sources of microplastic pollution on a small scale. The small size (particle diameter < 1 mm) of microplastics was a dominant feature, the most abundant shape was fiber and colored microplastics were found widely in YDXE and HHE. We provided detailed information on microplastic pollution to support their control and management in HHE and YDXE.
19Analysis of microplastic concentrations in water and bottom sediments as a new aspect of ecological monitoringOpenAlex
Е. В. Иванова, Sh. R. Pozdnyakov, D. A. Tikhonova
Abstract In this article we consider some features of spatial distribution of microplastic particles in water column and bottom sediments of Lake Ladoga based on results of research conducted in 2018-2019. This new type of contamination poses new threats to ecological conditions of water bodies. Considering the growing relevance of this problem, it is important to estimate genesis and scale of this contamination and its spatial and temporal distribution for developing recommendations for managing conditions of water bodies. It is advisable to add microplastic research including analysing microplastic concentrations and chemical composition of the particles to the system of ecological monitoring.
20Microplastic Contamination in Karst Groundwater SystemsOpenAlex
Samuel V. Panno, Walton R. Kelly, John W. Scott, et al.
Groundwater in karst aquifers constitutes about 25% of drinking water sources globally. Karst aquifers are open systems, susceptible to contamination by surface-borne pollutants. In this study, springs and wells from two karst aquifers in Illinois, USA, were found to contain microplastics and other anthropogenic contaminants. All microplastics were fibers, with a maximum concentration of 15.2 particles/L. The presence of microplastic was consistent with other parameters, including phosphate, chloride and triclosan, suggesting septic effluent as a source. More studies are needed on microplastic sources, abundance, and impacts on karst ecosystems.
24Occurrence and removal of microplastics in an advanced drinking water treatment plant (ADWTP).PubMed
Zhifeng Wang, Tao Lin, Wei Chen
Sci Total Environ. 2020 Jan 15;700:134520. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134520. Epub 2019 Oct 25.
Microplastics (MPs) have attracted worldwide attention as the emerging persistent pollutants. Since they have been detected in raw water and the treated water of drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs), there was an urgent need to explore the properties and fates of microplastics in DWTPs. The characteristics of the effluent MPs from each treatment unit in an advanced drinking water treatment plant (ADWTP) were studied, and the relationship between the variations of MPs and the removal performances of treatment processes was also explored. Overall, both the coagulation combined with sedimentation and the granular activated carbon (GAC) filtration performed well in removing microplastics. The former had a removal efficiency of about 40.5-54.5%, mainly for fibres' removal, and the presence of GAC filtration reduced the microplastic abundance by about 56.8-60.9%, mainly for small-sized MPs. It was worthy of attention that a larger amount of polyacrylamide (PAM) was detected in the effluent of the sedimentation compared to raw water, which was caused by the usage of coagulant containing PAM. Specially, the number of 1-5 μm MPs in the effluent of ozonation tank was increased by 2.8-16.0%, resulting in a negative removal efficiency in ozonation. The removals of microplastics were depended primarily on their physical properties (size and shape).
25Microplastics in drinking water distribution systems: Occurrence, environmental behavior, and human health concerns.PubMed
Soon-Thiam Khu, Fang Li, Weigao Zhao
Environ Pollut. 2025 Oct 1;382:126666. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2025.126666. Epub 2025 Jun 13.
Microplastics, increasingly detected in drinking water, have sparked growing concern due to their persistence, potential bioaccumulation, and risks to human health. Elucidating their fate in drinking water distribution systems (DWDSs) is critical for accurately assessing exposure risks and guiding effective mitigation strategies. This review systematically evaluates the microplastic occurrence at key nodes in DWDSs, their morphological characteristics, and environmental behaviors within the network. Direct comparisons across studies are hindered by methodological inconsistencies, highlighting the need for standardized protocols. Drinking water treatment plants serve vital function limiting microplastics ingress into the distribution systems, but conventional technologies often fail to ensure complete removal. Microplastics are predominantly present as small and fibrous particles within DWDSs. The wear and degradation of plastic pipes and fittings are recognized as potential sources of microplastic contamination. Neglected small microplastics and nanoplastics tend to exhibit colloidal properties that enhance their mobility and sorption potential. Microplastics exhibit complex environmental behaviors during transport. Due to their diminutive size and high specific surface area, microplastics act as effective vectors for microbial colonization and co-pollutant accumulation, thereby intensifying the composite contamination risk. Furthermore, the irregular structure and high porosity of the pipe scale facilitate microplastic retention and adsorption. This review reveals the distribution and fate of microplastics in DWDSs, offering scientific references for developing effective pollution control strategies for microplastics.
26Human exposure to microplastics from urban decentralized pay-to-fetch drinking-water refill kiosks.PubMed
Fermín Pérez-Guevara, Priyadarsi D Roy, I Elizalde-Martínez, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2022 Nov 20;848:157722. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157722. Epub 2022 Jul 29.
Microplastics in the human diet have become a worldwide concern. To date, microplastics in urban drinking water supplies, such as decentralized drinking-water refill kiosks, have not been studied and are a pressing concern since they are so closely tied to human life and have a significant influence on health. This study evaluated the occurrence and characteristics of microplastics in 63 drinking water samples collected from decentralized refill kiosks in the Mexico City metropolitan area. All of the sampled drinking water contained microplastics in concentrations ranging from 11 to 860 microplastics L. The detected microplastics were mostly fiber (65 %), followed by fragment (28 %), and film (7 %). They were mainly composed of polyethylene terephthalate, polyamides, vinyl polymers, polyacetal, and cellophane in sizes ranging from 20 μm to 5 mm, with 75 % of them accounting for sizes <300 μm. SEM-EDX analysis revealed weathered microplastics, biota adherence, and the presence of inorganic elements on the surface of microplastics. We estimate that Mexico City residents inadvertently ingest 42 microplastics L, with an annual exposure of around 1.47 × 10 microplastics per adult and 6.73 × 10 microplastics per child. Therefore, future research is needed to strengthen drinking water refill kiosk guidelines and standards for better microplastic management. This study serves as a wake-up call to many developing countries that use similar urban water systems, drawing their attention to global microplastic contamination of drinking water.
27Nano-microplastic and agro-ecosystems: a mini-review.PubMed
Krishan K Verma, Xiu-Peng Song, Lin Xu, et al.
Front Plant Sci. 2023 Nov 20;14:1283852. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1283852. eCollection 2023.
Plastics' unavoidable and rampant usage causes their trash to be extensively dispersed in the atmosphere and land due to its numerous characteristics. Because of extensive plastic usage and increased manufacturing, there is insufficient recycling and a large accumulation of microplastics (MPs) in the environment. In addition to their wide availability in the soil and atmosphere, micro- and nanoplastics are becoming contaminants worldwide. Agro-ecosystem functioning and plant development are being negatively impacted in several ways by the contamination of the environment and farmland soils with MPs (<5 mm) and nanoplastics (<1 µm). The contributions of some recyclable organic waste and plastic film mulching and plastic particle deposition in agroecosystems may be substantial; therefore, it is crucial to understand any potentially hazardous or undesirable impacts of these pollutants on agroecosystems. The dissolution of bioplastics into micro- and nano-particles (MBPs and NBPs) has not been considered in recent studies, which focus primarily on agro-ecosystems. It is essential to properly understand the distribution, concentration, fate, and main source of MPs, NPS, MBPs, and NBPs in agroecosystems. Based on the limited findings, understanding the knowledge gap of environmental impact from micro and nanoplastic in farming systems does not equate to the absence of such evidence. It reveals the considerations for addressing the gaps to effectively protect global food safety and security in the near future.
28Impact of plastic mulch film debris on soil physicochemical and hydrological propertiesOpenAlex
Yueling Qi, Nicolas Bériot, Gerrit Gort, et al.
The plastic mulch films used in agriculture are considered to be a major source of the plastic residues found in soil. Mulching with low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is widely practiced and the resulting macro- and microscopic plastic residues in agricultural soil have aroused concerns for years. Over the past decades, a variety of biodegradable (Bio) plastics have been developed in the hope of reducing plastic contamination of the terrestrial ecosystem. However, the impact of these Bio plastics in agroecosystems have not been sufficiently studied. Therefore, we investigated the impact of macro (around 5 mm) and micro (<1 mm) sized plastic debris from LDPE and one type of starch-based Bio mulch film on soil physicochemical and hydrological properties. We used environmentally relevant concentrations of plastics, ranging from 0 to 2% (w/w), identified by field studies and literature review. We studied the effects of the plastic residue on a sandy soil for one month in a laboratory experiment. The bulk density, porosity, saturated hydraulic conductivity, field capacity and soil water repellency were altered significantly in the presence of the four kinds of plastic debris, while pH, electrical conductivity and aggregate stability were not substantially affected. Overall, our research provides clear experimental evidence that microplastics affect soil properties. The type, size and content of plastic debris as well as the interactions between these three factors played complex roles in the variations of the measured soil parameters. Living in a plastic era, it is crucial to conduct further interdisciplinary studies in order to have a comprehensive understanding of plastic debris in soil and agroecosystems.
30Evidence of microplastic accumulation in agricultural soils from sewage sludge disposalOpenAlex
Fabio Corradini, Pablo Meza, Raúl Eguiluz, et al.
. The majority of the observed microplastics were fibers (90% in sludge, and 97% in soil). Our results indicate that microplastic counts increase over time where successive sludge applications are performed. Microplastics observed in soil samples stress the relevance of sludge as a driver of soil microplastic contamination.
32Sewage sludge application as a vehicle for microplastics in eastern Spanish agricultural soilsOpenAlex
Pim van den Berg, Esperanza Huerta Lwanga, Fabio Corradini, et al.
with each successive application of sewage sludge, indicating that sewage sludge application results in accumulation of microplastics in agricultural soils.
34Particulate plastics-plant interaction in soil and its implications: A review.PubMed
Xiaolian Wu, Jinlian Lu, Minghui Du, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2021 Oct 20;792:148337. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148337. Epub 2021 Jun 9.
Particulate plastics (<5 mm), including macroplastics (1 μm to 5 mm), microplastics (100 nm to 1 μm) and nanoplastics (<100 nm), have become a global environmental problem due to their widespread occurrence, distribution and ecosystem risk. Although numerous studies on particulate plastics have been conducted in aquatic systems, investigations in the soil ecosystem are lacking. Soil is the main storage place of particulate plastics, conferring significant impacts on plant growth and development. The impact of particulate plastics on plants is directly related to the safety of agricultural products. This review comprehensively examines the pollution characteristics and exposure pathways of particulate plastics in agricultural soils, highlighting plastic uptake process, and mechanisms in plants, and effects of particulate plastics, biodegradable particulate plastics and combined pollution of plastics with other environmental pollutants on plant performances. This review identifies a number of future research prospects including the development of accurate quantitative methods for plastic analysis in soil and plant samples, understanding the environmental behaviors of conventional and biodegradable particulate plastics in the presence and absence of other environmental pollutants, unravelling the fate of particulate plastics in plants, phyto-toxicity and molecular regulatory mechanisms of particultate plastics, and developing best management practices for the production of safe agricultural products in plastic-contaminated soils.
36Propensity and repercussion of microplastics in the soil-water-urban continuum.PubMed
Manish Kumar, Priyansha Gupta, Shiwangi Dogra, et al.
J Contam Hydrol. 2025 Sep;274:104663. doi: 10.1016/j.jconhyd.2025.104663. Epub 2025 Jul 3.
Despite consistently increasing efforts to reduce legacy and emerging pollutants like microplastic (MP), agro-ecosystems, particularly soil carbon is alarmingly threated to be replaced by plastic carbon, endangering the one health. While MPs have witnessed unprecedented research focus and frequency spike, the hydro-biological aspects in connection to urbanization, agricultural practices and ecosystem services are not explicitly discussed. Hence, we provide a comprehensive examination of MP sources, transport, and factors influencing their migration in soil and groundwater, with specific emphasis on urbanization, surface-groundwater interactions, and flooding, its interactions with organic and inorganic pollutants, antibiotic resistance genes, and potential routes exposure to humans, and toxicity augmentation. The investigation explicitly establishes the fact that flood-prone countries exhibit higher MPs infiltration into the greater depth of soil profile. However, plastic mobilization during undefended flood events varies significantly across the globe. Notably, China stands out with the highest MP concentrations in both agricultural soil and groundwater samples compared to other countries. MPs are found to be heterogeneously distributed across different soil depths, from shallow (0-5 cm) layers to deeper ones (up to 40 cm). On the other hand rapid urban development increases plastic waste on streets and other urban areas, and thus the influence of hydro(bio)logy-urbanization-agro-ecosystems nexus become highly significant. As MPs migrate through vadose zone via both vertical and horizontal transport mechanisms, it is imperative that interdisciplinary collaboration of experts from environmental science, hydrogeology, microbiology, material science, and engineering to understand and mitigate MPs contamination to achieve sustainable development goals.
38The first evidence of microplastic occurrence in mine water: The largest black coal mining area in the Czech RepublicOpenAlex
Kateřina Brožová, Jan Halfar, Kristína Čabanová, et al.
Climate change is creating new challenges for water supply worldwide, making the search for new sources of water vital. As mine water could serve as a potential source, this study investigated the presence of microplastics in water from terminated deep mines in the largest coal basin in the Czech Republic, as well as in water from nearby shallow wells. The particles found were analyzed for size, polymer composition, color and morphology using the ImageJ tool, infrared spectroscopy with Fourier transform (FTIR) and an optical stereomicroscope with a digital camera. Microplastics were detected in all tested sites. Their range accounted for 2.5-17.5 items/L for mine water samples and 2.5-20 items/L for well samples, with fibers being the dominant type. The average width of particles from mine water and wells amounted to 58 µm; 71 µm, length to 655 µm; 501 µm and area to 22,067 µm2; 28,613 µm2, respectively. Blue color was prevalent, among materials, in both cases, plastic coated paper was found dominant to Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), Polyester (PES), Tetrafluoroethylene-perfluoro (Propyl Vinyl Ether) - Copolymer (TFE-PPVE), and polypropylene (PP). The research provides the first evidence of microplastics' presence in underground waters from deep mines and shallow wells in the same area. The data suggest that it is almost impossible to find underground water sources free of microplastic contamination. In this context, atmospheric contamination from mine ventilation and infiltration through terminated mines were identified as potential sources, while infiltration through soil and rock formations is unlikely given the geological composition. The results of this study can serve as a relevant basis for further research on microplastics in mine waters. Additionally, the conclusions can advance the development in remediation technologies of microplastics from deep underground waters and their implementation in practice, particularly in light of upcoming legislation.
43Forest soils accumulate microplastics through atmospheric depositionOpenAlex
Collin J. Weber, Moritz Bigalke
Abstract The occurrence and fate of microplastics in forest ecosystems is a recognized knowledge gap. In this paper, we used an aligned extraction method to quantify microplastics (>20 µm) in organic and mineral forest soil horizons and throughfall deposition. Calculation of forest soil microplastic stocks and throughfall fluxes allowed an estimation of throughfall contribution to microplastic accumulation in forest soils back to 1950. We identified a short-term microplastic enrichment in decomposed litter horizons followed by an accumulation in lower mineral soil caused by litter turnover processes. Similar microplastic features in soil and throughfall deposition indicate that microplastics entering forest soils primarily originate from atmospheric deposition and litter fall, while other sources have a minor impact. We conclude that forests are good indicators for atmospheric microplastic pollution and that high microplastic concentrations in forest soils indicate a high diffuse input of microplastics into these ecosystems.
44Environmental source, fate, and toxicity of microplastics.PubMed
Chunhui Wang, Jian Zhao, Baoshan Xing
J Hazard Mater. 2021 Apr 5;407:124357. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124357. Epub 2020 Oct 22.
Microplastics are small plastic pieces with sizes less than 5 mm. Due to their widespread distribution in different environmental compartments, food, and drinking water, microplastics have attracted increasing attention across the world. Previous reports have focused on the source, distribution, fate, and toxicity of microplastics. However, many of these studies and reviews are not quite comprehensive, and most of them have only focused on marine environments. Therefore, we comprehensively reviewed the available literature on the source, occurrence, and fate of microplastics in different environments, including air, freshwater, soil, and ocean, across the world. Our review suggests that the sources of microplastics are extensive and diverse and that their occurrence, transport, and fate in the environment are affected by a variety of natural factors as well as their own physicochemical properties. Studies on the toxicological effects of microplastics are also reviewed. We found that large research gaps exist in the quantitative analysis of different exposure routes of microplastics, and microplastic toxicity to organisms. Moreover, key suggestions for future research are presented, and we call for more efforts focusing on the occurrence and fate of microplastics in terrestrial environments, especially in the atmosphere and soil, and further investigations on the toxicity mechanisms of microplastics.
47Methods and challenges in the detection of microplastics and nanoplastics: a mini‐reviewOpenAlex
Sangeet Adhikari, Varun Kelkar, Rahul Kumar, et al.
Abstract Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) constitute a newly recognized class of contaminants of emerging concern in air, soil, water and food, causing unavoidable exposure to humans and animals. Detection, identification and quantification of MPs and NPs in environmental matrices and biota is challenging due to the analytes' small size, random morphology, polymeric diversity, applied coatings and vast surface areas which attract chemical and microbial sorbates. This mini‐review explores strengths and weaknesses of analytical methods commonly used for MP and NP identification and quantification, including stereomicroscopy, SEM, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, flow cytometry and mass spectrometry techniques including matrix‐assisted laser desorption/ionization time‐of‐flight, pyrolysis gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Analytical challenges involved in precise MP/NP detection have been identified and recommendations have been provided to ensure data quality addressing common data quality concerns, including the difficulty of obtaining irrefutable proof that detected polymers originated from the sample as opposed to sample contamination during sample acquisition, sample processing and analysis. © 2021 The Authors. Polymer International published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Industrial Chemistry.
48Microplastics in the marine environment: a review of the methods used for identification and quantification.PubMed
Valeria Hidalgo-Ruz, Lars Gutow, Richard C Thompson, et al.
Environ Sci Technol. 2012 Mar 20;46(6):3060-75. doi: 10.1021/es2031505. Epub 2012 Mar 2.
This review of 68 studies compares the methodologies used for the identification and quantification of microplastics from the marine environment. Three main sampling strategies were identified: selective, volume-reduced, and bulk sampling. Most sediment samples came from sandy beaches at the high tide line, and most seawater samples were taken at the sea surface using neuston nets. Four steps were distinguished during sample processing: density separation, filtration, sieving, and visual sorting of microplastics. Visual sorting was one of the most commonly used methods for the identification of microplastics (using type, shape, degradation stage, and color as criteria). Chemical and physical characteristics (e.g., specific density) were also used. The most reliable method to identify the chemical composition of microplastics is by infrared spectroscopy. Most studies reported that plastic fragments were polyethylene and polypropylene polymers. Units commonly used for abundance estimates are "items per m(2)" for sediment and sea surface studies and "items per m(3)" for water column studies. Mesh size of sieves and filters used during sampling or sample processing influence abundance estimates. Most studies reported two main size ranges of microplastics: (i) 500 μm-5 mm, which are retained by a 500 μm sieve/net, and (ii) 1-500 μm, or fractions thereof that are retained on filters. We recommend that future programs of monitoring continue to distinguish these size fractions, but we suggest standardized sampling procedures which allow the spatiotemporal comparison of microplastic abundance across marine environments.
49Sampling and processing methods of microplastics in river sediments - A review.PubMed
Yasmin Adomat, Thomas Grischek
Sci Total Environ. 2021 Mar 1;758:143691. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143691. Epub 2020 Nov 23.
Microplastics (MP) in marine environments attract widespread attention due to their small particle size and potential hazardous impacts on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Compared to marine sediments, knowledge about the occurrence of MP in freshwater sediments, especially in river sediments, is limited. Although MP concentrations in sediments and soils have been reported in a considerable number of studies, no standardized method is available for sampling and sample processing. Thus, a comparison of results is hardly possible. The present study reviews over 47 articles to evaluate reports of MP in river sediments and current sampling and processing techniques by highlighting various techniques, equipment and approaches for implementing quality assurance and quality control procedures. The authors emphasize that MP quantification techniques could lead to overestimation or underestimation depending on how sampling and sample processing is conducted. Standardization and harmonization of these techniques are crucial to underpin monitoring decisions aimed at safeguarding the ecological integrity of freshwater environments.
50Comparison of different salt solutions for density separation of conventional and biodegradable microplastic from solid sample matricesOpenAlex
Berit Schütze, Daniela Thomas, Martin Kraft, et al.
Microplastics are the new emerging pollutants ubiquitously detectable in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Fate and behavior, as well as ecotoxicity, are of increasing environmental concern, particularly in sediments and soils as natural sinks. For a global environmental risk assessment, reliable and easy to apply analytical methods are mandatory to obtain comparable data. This is based on the isolation of microplastics out of the solid sample matrices prior to instrumental detection. Thus, this study provides an easy to apply approach for density separation. The technique emerged from a comparative study using different salt solutions to isolate conventional, and for the first time biodegradable, microplastics from different solid sample matrices, i.e., sand, artificial soil, and compost. Four solutions (water, sodium chloride, sodium hexametaphosphate, and sodium bromide) of different densities were applied followed by oxidizing digestion. Finally, the impact of the procedures on size and surface properties of microplastics was tested. Dependent on the sample matrix, the highest recovery rates of 87.3-100.3% for conventional polymers, and 38.2-78.2% for biodegradable polymers, were determined with sodium bromide. It could be shown that the type of solid sample matrix influences the recovery rates and has to be considered when choosing a sample preparation technique.
51Sampling, separation, and characterization methodology for quantification of microplastic from the environmentOpenAlex
Prabhakar Sharma, Prabhakar Sharma, Prateek Sharma, et al.
As millions of tonnes of plastics wind up in the environment, plastic pollution is a severe issue that worsens with time. In addition to primary plastic particles, large plastic items are fragmented due to ultraviolet radiation, degradation, and other environmental causes, resulting in minuscule compounds, known as microplastics or nanoplastics. They adsorb hazardous contaminants or easily get absorbed by organisms, for example, polychlorinated biphenyls, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or heavy metals get adhered to microplastic surfaces due to their tiny size and large surface area. Studies on their toxicity and environmental fate are crucial in light of these challenges, but their effectiveness depends on sampling procedure, sample preparation, characterization, analysis, and quantification techniques. The standard methods for the characterization of microplastics are performed using Fourier transform infrared resonance, Raman Spectroscopy, and pyrolysis Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry. Unfortunately, none of these techniques can achieve in-situ non-invasive characterization. These processes are complex, non-uniform across the studies, and different for specific sampling domains such as soil/sediment, surface water or groundwater, biota, and atmosphere. Thus, the current study highlights a specific methodology being used for sampling, sample preparation, characterization, and analysis from solid, aqueous, air, or biota samples. This review paper also specifies the characterization tool and quantification of microplastic concentration and types in the different environmental samples. Future studies on microplastics should prioritize the development of standardized sampling protocols to ensure comparability across diverse ecosystems. Additionally, employing advanced analytical techniques and collaborating across interdisciplinary fields can enhance the accuracy and reliability of microplastic separation and quantification methods.
52A critical view on microplastic quantification in aquatic organisms.PubMed
Griet Vandermeersch, Lisbeth Van Cauwenberghe, Colin R Janssen, et al.
Environ Res. 2015 Nov;143(Pt B):46-55. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2015.07.016. Epub 2015 Aug 3.
Microplastics, plastic particles and fragments smaller than 5mm, are ubiquitous in the marine environment. Ingestion and accumulation of microplastics have previously been demonstrated for diverse marine species ranging from zooplankton to bivalves and fish, implying the potential for microplastics to accumulate in the marine food web. In this way, microplastics can potentially impact food safety and human health. Although a few methods to quantify microplastics in biota have been described, no comparison and/or intercalibration of these techniques have been performed. Here we conducted a literature review on all available extraction and quantification methods. Two of these methods, involving wet acid destruction, were used to evaluate the presence of microplastics in field-collected mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) from three different "hotspot" locations in Europe (Po estuary, Italy; Tagus estuary, Portugal; Ebro estuary, Spain). An average of 0.18±0.14 total microplastics g(-1) w.w. for the Acid mix Method and 0.12±0.04 total microplastics g(-1) w.w. for the Nitric acid Method was established. Additionally, in a pilot study an average load of 0.13±0.14 total microplastics g(-1) w.w. was recorded in commercial mussels (Mytilus edulis and M. galloprovincialis) from five European countries (France, Italy, Denmark, Spain and The Netherlands). A detailed analysis and comparison of methods indicated the need for further research to develop a standardised operating protocol for microplastic quantification and monitoring.
53Comparison of pyrolysis gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and hyperspectral FTIR imaging spectroscopy for the analysis of microplasticsOpenAlex
Sebastian Primpke, Marten Fischer, Claudia Lorenz, et al.
Analysis of microplastics (MP) in environmental samples is an emerging field, which is performed with various methods and instruments based either on spectroscopy or thermoanalytical methods. In general, both approaches result in two different types of data sets that are either mass or particle number related. Depending on detection limits of the respective method and instrumentation the derived polymer composition trends may vary. In this study, we compare the results of hyperspectral Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) imaging analysis and pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) analysis performed on a set of environmental samples that differ in complexity and degree of microplastic contamination. The measurements were conducted consecutively, and on exactly the same sample. First, the samples were investigated with FTIR using aluminum oxide filters; subsequently, these were crushed, transferred to glass fiber filters, in pyrolysis cups, and measured via Py-GC/MS. After a general data harmonization step, the trends in MP contamination were thoroughly investigated with regard to the respective sample set and the derived polymer compositions. While the overall trends in MP contamination were very similar, differences were observed in the polymer compositions. Furthermore, polymer masses were empirically calculated from FTIR data and compared with the Py-GC/MS results. Here, a most plausible shape-related overestimation of the calculated polymer masses was observed in samples with larger particles and increased particle numbers. Taking into account the different measurement principles of both methods, all results were examined and discussed, and future needs for harmonization of intermethodological results were identified and highlighted. Graphical abstract.
54Critical Assessment of Analytical Methods for the Harmonized and Cost-Efficient Analysis of MicroplasticsOpenAlex
Sebastian Primpke, Silke Christiansen, Win Cowger, et al.
Microplastics are of major concerns for society and is currently in the focus of legislators and administrations. A small number of measures to reduce or remove primary sources of microplastics to the environment are currently coming into effect. At the moment, they have not yet tackled important topics such as food safety. However, recent developments such as the 2018 bill in California are requesting the analysis of microplastics in drinking water by standardized operational protocols. Administrations and analytical labs are facing an emerging field of methods for sampling, extraction, and analysis of microplastics, which complicate the establishment of standardized operational protocols. In this review, the state of the currently applied identification and quantification tools for microplastics are evaluated providing a harmonized guideline for future standardized operational protocols to cover these types of bills. The main focus is on the naked eye detection, general optical microscopy, the application of dye staining, flow cytometry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-Ir) and microscopy, Raman spectroscopy and microscopy, thermal degradation by pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (py-GC-MS) as well as thermo-extraction and desorption gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (TED-GC-MS). Additional techniques are highlighted as well as the combined application of the analytical techniques suggested. An outlook is given on the emerging aspect of nanoplastic analysis. In all cases, the methods were screened for limitations, field work abilities and, if possible, estimated costs and summarized into a recommendation for a workflow covering the demands of society, legislation, and administration in cost efficient but still detailed manner.
55Cross-platform detection of microplastics in human biological tissues: Comparing spectroscopic and chromatographic approaches.PubMed
Lin Zhang, Jiaqi Tian, Xiaodan Zhu, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2025 Jul 15;492:138133. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.138133. Epub 2025 Apr 1.
Microplastic (MP) contamination in ecosystems underscores concerns about human bioaccumulation, yet analytical challenges persist due to complex biological matrices and polymer diversity. To systematically evaluate the efficacy of complementary analytical platforms, we conducted this study to systematically evaluate Raman microscopy and pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (py-GC/MS) for complementary MP detection in human biological samples. Building upon prior research frameworks, 48 paired endometrial and urine samples from parturient women were analyzed under rigorously controlled protocols to minimize exogenous contamination. Raman microscopy identified six polymer types, with polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and polystyrene (PS) constituting primary components across both sample types. Particle size distributions spanned 1.23-6.98 μm, exhibiting comparable mean diameters in urine (2.85 ± 1.26 μm) and endometrial samples (2.89 ± 1.40 μm). Subsequent py-GC/MS analysis revealed previously undetected polymer co-occurrences (PS, PC, PE, and PVC) in samples initially classified as single-polymer PTFE or PS via Raman spectroscopy, thereby exposing inherent disparities in method-specific sensitivity and resolution. The follow-up multi-method comparison demonstrates that Raman microscopy excels in particle-specific morphological characterization, while py-GC/MS provides polymer quantification and composite identification. Our findings underscore the necessity of integrating orthogonal analytical approaches to overcome methodological limitations and achieve comprehensive MP profiling in complex biological systems.
58Study on detection method of microplastics in farmland soil based on hyperspectral imaging technologyOpenAlex
Lijia Xu, Yanjun Chen, Ao Feng, et al.
Microplastics (MPs) in farming soils can have a substantial impact on soil ecology and agricultural productivity, as well as affecting human health and the food chain cycle. As a result, it is vital to study MPs detection technologies that are rapid, efficient, and accurate in agriculture soils. This study investigated the classification and detection of MPs using hyperspectral imaging (HSI) technology and a machine learning methodology. To begin, the hyperspectral data was preprocessed using SG convolution smoothing and Z-score normalization. Second, the feature variables were extracted from the preprocessed spectral data using bootstrapping soft shrinkage, model adaptive space shrinkage, principal component analysis, isometric mapping (Isomap), genetic algorithm, successive projections algorithm (SPA), and uninformative variable elimination. Finally, three support vector machine (SVM), back propagation neural network (BPNN), and one-dimensional convolutional neural network (1D-CNN) models were developed to classify and detect three microplastic polymers: polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyvinyl chloride, as well as their combinations. According to the experimental results, the best approaches based on three models were Isomap-SVM, Isomap-BPNN, and SPA-1D-CNN. Among them, the accuracy, precision, recall and F1_score of Isomap-SVM were 0.9385, 0.9433, 0.9385 and 0.9388, respectively. The accuracy, precision, recall and F1_score of Isomap-BPNN were 0.9414, 0.9427, 0.9414 and 0.9414, respectively, while the accuracy, precision, recall and F1_score of SPA-1D-CNN were 0.9500, 0.9515, 0.9500 and 0.9500, respectively. When their classification accuracy was compared, SPA-1D-CNN had the best classification performance, with a classification accuracy of 0.9500. The findings of this study shown that the SPA-1D-CNN based on HSI technology can efficiently and accurately identify MPs in farmland soils, providing theoretical backing as well as technical means for real-time detection of MPs in farmland soils.
60Microplastic Abundance and Composition in Western Lake Superior As Determined via Microscopy, Pyr-GC/MS, and FTIROpenAlex
Erik M. Hendrickson, Elizabeth C. Minor, K. M. Schreiner
While plastic pollution in marine and freshwater systems is an active area of research, there is not yet an in-depth understanding of the distributions, chemical compositions, and fates of plastics in aquatic environments. In this study, the magnitude, distribution, and common polymers of microplastic pollution in surface waters in western Lake Superior are determined. Analytical methodology, including estimates of ambient contamination during sample collection and processing, are described and employed. Microscopy, pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Pyr-GC/MS), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were used to quantify and identify microplastic particles. In surface waters, fibers were the most frequently observed morphology, and, based upon PyGC/MS analysis, polyvinyl chloride was the most frequently observed polymer, followed by polypropylene and polyethylene. The most common polymer identified by FTIR was polyethylene. Despite the low human population in Lake Superior's watershed, microplastic particles (particularly fibers, fragments, and films) were identified in western-lake surface waters at levels comparable to average values reported in studies within Lake Michigan, the North Atlantic Ocean, and the South Pacific Ocean. This study provides insight into the magnitude of microplastic pollution in western Lake Superior, and describes in detail methodology to improve future microplastics studies in aquatic systems.
61Two Birds with One Stone—Fast and Simultaneous Analysis of Microplastics: Microparticles Derived from Thermoplastics and Tire WearOpenAlex
Paul Eisentraut, Erik Dümichen, Aki Sebastian Ruhl, et al.
Analysis of microplastic particles in environmental samples needs sophisticated techniques and is time intensive due to sample preparation and detection. Alternatives to the most common (micro-) spectroscopic techniques, Fourier transform infrared and Raman spectroscopy, are thermoanalytical methods, in which specific decomposition products can be analyzed as marker compounds for different kinds of plastic types and mass contents. Thermal extraction desorption gas chromatography–mass spectrometry allows the fast identification and quantification of MP in environmental samples without sample preparation. Whereas to date only the analysis of thermoplastic polymers has been realized, this is the first time that even the analysis of tire wear (TW) content in environmental samples has been possible. Various marker compounds for TW were identified. They include characteristic decomposition products of elastomers, antioxidants, and vulcanization agents. Advantages and drawbacks of these marker substances were evaluated. Environmental samples from street runoff were exemplarily investigated, and the results are presented.
62An efficient method for extracting microplastics from feces of different species.PubMed
Zehua Yan, Huajin Zhao, Yanping Zhao, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2020 Feb 15;384:121489. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121489. Epub 2019 Oct 23.
Concerns have been raised regarding the ingestion of microplastics (MPs) by numerous organisms including humans. However, no efficient and standardized methods are available for extracting MPs from feces. In this study, we introduce a novel approach with high digestion efficiency that involves using Fenton's reagent and nitric acid to remove feces solids. Firstly, Fenton's reagent was used to degrade small solids and decompose large solids into small pieces. Secondly, nitric acid was used to digest the remaining solids and filters. Furthermore, absolute ethyl alcohol was used to remove the mineral residues wrapped on the plastic surfaces and disperse MPs. By using this method, 97.78 % MPs can be recovered from human and chicken feces, and no significant changes were observed in the physical and Raman spectral properties of different polymer types of MPs. This method has also been verified by extracting MPs from field feces. Overall, the proposed method can efficiently digest feces solids and extract MPs with higher recovery rate, less intermediate steps and less damage, which can serve as an economical and feasible method for the detection of MPs in the feces of different species.
63Detection of microplastics in human lung tissue using μFTIR spectroscopy.PubMed
Lauren C Jenner, Jeanette M Rotchell, Robert T Bennett, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2022 Jul 20;831:154907. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154907. Epub 2022 Mar 29.
Airborne microplastics (MPs) have been sampled globally, and their concentration is known to increase in areas of high human population and activity, especially indoors. Respiratory symptoms and disease following exposure to occupational levels of MPs within industry settings have also been reported. It remains to be seen whether MPs from the environment can be inhaled, deposited and accumulated within the human lungs. This study analysed digested human lung tissue samples (n = 13) using μFTIR spectroscopy (size limitation of 3 μm) to detect and characterise any MPs present. In total, 39 MPs were identified within 11 of the 13 lung tissue samples with an average of 1.42 ± 1.50 MP/g of tissue (expressed as 0.69 ± 0.84 MP/g after background subtraction adjustments). The MP levels within tissue samples were significantly higher than those identified within combined procedural/laboratory blanks (n = 9 MPs, with a mean ± SD of 0.53 ± 1.07, p = 0.001). Of the MPs detected, 12 polymer types were identified with polypropylene, PP (23%), polyethylene terephthalate, PET (18%) and resin (15%) the most abundant. MPs (unadjusted) were identified within all regions of the lung categorised as upper (0.80 ± 0.96 MP/g), middle/lingular (0.41 ± 0.37 MP/g), and with significantly higher levels detected in the lower (3.12 ± 1.30 MP/g) region compared with the upper (p = 0.026) and mid (p = 0.038) lung regions. After subtracting blanks, these levels became 0.23 ± 0.28, 0.33 ± 0.37 and 1.65 ± 0.88 MP/g respectively. The study demonstrates the highest level of contamination control and reports unadjusted values alongside different contamination adjustment techniques. These results support inhalation as a route of exposure for environmental MPs, and this characterisation of types and levels can now inform realistic conditions for laboratory exposure experiments, with the aim of determining health impacts.
64Applications of Raman spectroscopy for microplastic detection and characterization: a comprehensive spectral reference.PubMed
Yasemin Umurhan, Mackenzie Songsart-Power, Tej B Limbu, et al.
Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2025 Oct;32(50):28630-28677. doi: 10.1007/s11356-025-37224-3. Epub 2025 Nov 27.
Microplastics (MPs), plastic particles smaller than 5 mm, represent an escalating global concern due to their persistence, ubiquity, and potential risks to ecosystems and human health. This review critically examines the application of Raman spectroscopy as a possibly non-destructive vibrational technique for detecting and characterizing MPs in environmental and biological matrices. The main objective is to consolidate Raman spectral signatures of common polymers such as polystyrene, polyester, and polyethylene terephthalate and to evaluate methodological advances that improve analytical precision and detection sensitivity. By summarizing Raman-based approaches across water, sediment, air, and biological tissues, this review identifies major analytical challenges including fluorescence interference and matrix complexity and discusses recent innovations such as coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy (CARS), surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), and compressive Raman technology (CRT). Overall, this work provides a comprehensive reference for Raman spectral data and offers practical insights to guide future research aimed at advancing MP detection and pollution mitigation.
65Feasibility of Raman and FTIR spectroscopy for direct microplastic search in the human milk samples: Comparative qualitative study.PubMed
Agnieszka Dąbrowska, Wanda Komorowska, Balázs Kriszt, et al.
Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2025 May;296:118159. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2025.118159. Epub 2025 Apr 11.
The ubiquitous presence of microplastic particles encompasses the human tissues and secreta. Unfortunately, the complex biological matrix hampers the proper polymer identification, and harsh purification protocols damage the microplastic particles (MPs), change the specimens frequently used and needed for additional diagnostics, and bias the final result. Moreover, purification of human milk samples is sometimes impossible, as the samples can not be subjected to any chemical pretreatment. Thus, this paper aims to check the feasibility of complementary spectral approaches, namely FTIR (Fourier-transform infrared) and Raman spectroscopy, to the fast scanning of selected MPs presence, in particular polyethylene (PE), and polystyrene (PS), in human milk samples without any previous purification to prevent the change of matrix. Although the proposed approach cannot be used for the quantitative measurement of MPs concentration or the detection of low-size fractions, it is a valuable tool for the preliminary screening of numerous population samples, and some preliminary conclusions can be drawn. One may easily detect the most common MPs and observe their eco-corona. Mapping mode is beneficial for scanning large areas. Furthermore, the spectral methods turned out to be efficient in the milk itself diagnosis, for instance, the monitoring of the fat content. The results were placed in the context of the ongoing broad discussion about MPs interaction with the human body and several possible impact mechanisms.
66A review on constructive classification framework of research trends in analytical instrumentation for secondary micro(nano)plastics: What is new and what needs next?PubMed
Udara Piyathilake, Chuxia Lin, Jochen Bundschuh, et al.
Environ Pollut. 2023 Oct 15;335:122320. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.122320. Epub 2023 Aug 4.
Secondary micro(nano)plastics generated from the degradation of plastics pose a major threat to environmental and human health. Amid the growing research on microplastics to date, the detection of secondary micro(nano)plastics is hampered by inadequate analytical instrumentation in terms of accuracy, validation, and repeatability. Given that, the current review provides a critical evaluation of the research trends in instrumental methods developed so far for the qualitative and quantitative determination of micro(nano)plastics with an emphasis on the evolution, new trends, missing links, and future directions. We conducted a meta-analysis of the growing literature surveying over 800 journal articles published from 2004 to 2022 based on the Web of Science database. The significance of this review is associated with the proposed novel classification framework to identify three main research trends, viz. (i) preliminary investigations, (ii) current progression, and (iii) novel advances in sampling, characterization, and quantification targeting both micro- and nano-sized plastics. Field Flow Fractionation (FFF) and Hydrodynamic Chromatography (HDC) were found to be the latest techniques for sampling and extraction of microplastics. Fluorescent Molecular Rotor (FMR) and Thermal Desorption-Proton Transfer Reaction-Mass Spectrometry (TD-PTR-MS) were recognized as the modern developments in the identification and quantification of polymer units in micro(nano)plastics. Powerful imaging techniques, viz. Digital Holographic Imaging (DHI) and Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy (FLIM) offered nanoscale analysis of the surface topography of nanoplastics. Machine learning provided fast and less labor-intensive analytical protocols for accurate classification of plastic types in environmental samples. Although the existing analytical methods are justifiable merely for microplastics, they are not fully standardized for nanoplastics. Future research needs to be more inclined towards secondary nanoplastics for their effective and selective analysis targeting a broad range of environmental and biological matrices.
67Separation and Detection of Microplastics in Human Exposure Pathways: Challenges, Analytical Techniques, and Emerging Solutions.PubMed
Asim Laeeq Khan, Asad A Zaidi
J Xenobiot. 2025 Sep 23;15(5):154. doi: 10.3390/jox15050154.
Microplastics (MPs) are increasingly recognized as widespread environmental contaminants, with confirmed presence in human tissues and biological fluids through ingestion, inhalation, and direct systemic exposure. Their potential impacts on human health have become an important subject of scientific investigation. The detection and quantification of MPs, particularly nanoplastics, in complex biological matrices remain challenging because of their low concentrations, diverse physicochemical properties, and interference from organic and inorganic matter. This review presents a critical assessment of current methods for the separation and detection of MPs from human-relevant samples. It examines pre-treatment, separation, and analytical approaches including physical filtration, density-based separation, chemical and enzymatic digestion, vibrational spectroscopy, thermal analysis, and electron microscopy, highlighting their principles, advantages, and limitations. Key challenges such as low sample throughput, absence of standardized procedures, and the difficulty of nanoplastic detection are identified as major barriers to accurate exposure assessment and risk evaluation. Recent advances, including functionalized adsorbents, improved anti-fouling membranes, integrated microfluidic systems, and artificial intelligence-assisted spectral analysis, are discussed for their potential to provide sensitive, scalable, and standardized analytical workflows. By integrating current challenges with recent innovations, this review aims to guide multidisciplinary research toward the development of reliable and reproducible detection strategies that can support MPs exposure assessment and inform evidence-based health policies.
68Detection of microplastics in human tissues and organs: A scoping review.PubMed
Nur Sakinah Roslan, Yeong Yeh Lee, Yusof Shuaib Ibrahim, et al.
J Glob Health. 2024 Aug 23;14:04179. doi: 10.7189/jogh.14.04179.
BACKGROUND: Research on microplastics has largely focused on the environment and marine organisms until recently. A growing body of evidence has detected microplastics in human organs and tissues, with their exact entry routes being unclear and their potential health effects remain unknown. This scoping review aimed to characterise microplastics in human tissues and organs, examine their entry routes and addressing gaps in research analytical techniques. METHODS: Eligibility criteria included English language full text articles, in-vivo human studies only, and searching the databases using pre-defined terms. We based our analysis and reporting on the PRISMA guideline and examined the quality of evidence using the risk of bias assessment tool. RESULTS: Of 3616 articles screened, 223 evaluated and 26 were eventually included in this review. Nine were high risk for bias, three were unclear risk and the rest low risk for bias. Microplastics were detected in 8/12 human organ systems including cardiovascular, digestive, endocrine, integumentary, lymphatic, respiratory, reproductive and urinary. Microplastics were also observed in other human biological samples such as breastmilk, meconium, semen, stool, sputum and urine. Microplastics can be characterised based on shape, colours, and polymer type. Potential entry routes into human included atmospheric inhalation and ingestion through food and water. The extraction techniques for analysis of microplastics in human tissues vary significantly, each offering distinct advantages and limitations. CONCLUSIONS: Microplastics are commonly detected in human tissues and organs, with distinct characteristics and entry routes, and variable analytical techniques exist.
69Human biomonitoring of microplastics and health implications: A review.PubMed
Giuseppina Zuri, Angeliki Karanasiou, Sílvia Lacorte
Environ Res. 2023 Nov 15;237(Pt 1):116966. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.116966. Epub 2023 Aug 25.
BACKGROUND: Microplastics (MPs) are plastic particles (<5 mm) ubiquitous in water, soil, and air, indicating that humans can be exposed to MPs through ingestion of water and food, and inhalation. OBJECTIVE: This review provides an overview of the current human biomonitoring data available to evaluate human exposure and health impact of MPs. METHOD: We compiled 91 relevant studies on MPs in human matrices and MPs toxicological endpoints to provide evidence on MPs distribution in the different tissues and the implications this can have from a health perspective. RESULTS: Human exposure to MPs has been corroborated by the detection of MPs in different human biological samples including blood, urine, stool, lung tissue, breast milk, semen and placenta. Although humans have clearance mechanisms protecting them from potentially harmful substances, health risks associated to MPs exposure include the onset of inflammation, oxidative stress, and DNA damage, potentially leading to cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, as well as cancer, as suggested by in vitro and in vivo studies. CONCLUSION: Based on compiled data, MPs have been recurrently identified in different human tissues and fluids, suggesting that humans are exposed to MPs through inhalation and ingestion. Despite differences in MPs concentrations appear in exposed and non-exposed people, accumulation and distribution pathways and potential human health hazards is still at an infant stage. Human biomonitoring data enables the assessment of human exposure to MPs and associated risks, and this information can contribute to draw management actions and guidelines to minimize MP release to the environment, and thus, reduce human uptake.
70Effects of microplastics on marine copepods.PubMed
Zhuoan Bai, Nan Wang, Minghua Wang
Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2021 Jul 1;217:112243. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112243. Epub 2021 Apr 27.
Microplastic contamination has been considered as a global environmental problem in marine ecosystem. Due to small size (< 5 mm) in overlapping with that of microalgae, microplastics can easily be ingested by a wide range of marine copepods both in the laboratory and in situ. Although many studies have reported adverse effects of microplastics on marine copepods, it still lacks a systematic overview about the bioavailability of microplastics and their potential ecological consequences. As copepods dominate zooplankton biomass and provide an essential trophic link in marine ecosystem, this review indicates the bioavailability and toxicity of microplastics in such taxon depend on the shape, size, abundance, and properties of plastics. Also, ours is purposed to tease out the possible molecular mechanisms behind. Microplastic ingestion is prevalent; they impede food intake, block the digestive tract, and cause physiological stress in copepods (e.g., immune responses, metabolism disorders, energy depletion, behavioral alterations, growth retardation, and reproduction disturbance). Notably, in response to microplastic exposure, the copepods show both species- and stage-specificity. Furthermore, microplastics can serve as vectors of organic contaminants (e.g., triclosan, chlorpyrifos, and dibutyl phthalate) and thus increase their toxicity in marine copepods, consequently aggravating the adverse impacts of microplastics in marine ecosystem. Given that most previous studies have partially used pristine microplastics and their short-term exposure might have undervalued their negative effects, more multigenerational mechanistic researches (for example, via an integration of omics-based technology and phenotypic trait analysis) are urgently required for numerous marine copepods exposed to environmental-characteristics plastics as demonstrated by aged microplastics at environmentally realistic concentrations and added with other environmental pollutants; thus it will not only provide mechanistic insights into the biological impacts of microplastics, but also help make the seawater-benchmark setting and ecological assessment for microplastic pollution in marine environment.
71Transfer of Microplastics in Terrestrial and Aquatic Food Webs: The Impact of E-Waste Debris and Ecological Traits.PubMed
Xiaobo Zheng, Xiaodan Wu, Qian Zheng, et al.
Environ Sci Technol. 2022 Dec 28. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.2c06473.
Factors affecting the trophic transfer of microplastics (MPs) in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems remain to be clarified. Here, we determined the abundances of MPs in multiple terrestrial and aquatic species, including insects, snails, crustaceans, fishes, snakes, birds, and voles, from an abandoned e-waste recycling site. Approximately 80% of MPs were within the size range 20-50 μm. In wildlife, the MP abundances per individual and per body weight were found to be positively and negatively correlated with body weight, respectively. Herein, terrestrial vertebrates, primarily birds, exhibited more complex compositions of polymer types than other organisms owing to the wide foraging areas and diverse food sources. However, according to the MPs modeled and the observed results in bird food chains, MPs do not appear to be preferentially retained in the bird gastrointestinal tract. The species-specific polymer types identified indicate the influences of habitat on MP pollution in organisms, which is further supported by significant correlations between the abundance of MPs and δC in the terrestrial food web ( < 0.05). In the analyzed bird species, the low MP abundance detected in birds compared with the amount of food ingested indicates that MPs constitute a negligible factor in the bioaccumulation of chemical pollutants.
72Bioavailability and effects of microplastics on marine zooplankton: A review.PubMed
Zara L R Botterell, Nicola Beaumont, Tarquin Dorrington, et al.
Environ Pollut. 2019 Feb;245:98-110. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.10.065. Epub 2018 Oct 17.
Microplastics are abundant and widespread in the marine environment. They are a contaminant of global environmental and economic concern. Due to their small size a wide range of marine species, including zooplankton can ingest them. Research has shown that microplastics are readily ingested by several zooplankton taxa, with associated negative impacts on biological processes. Zooplankton is a crucial food source for many secondary consumers, consequently this represents a route whereby microplastic could enter the food web and transfer up the trophic levels. In this review we aim to: 1) evaluate the current knowledge base regarding microplastic ingestion by zooplankton in both the laboratory and the field; and 2) summarise the factors which contribute to the bioavailability of microplastics to zooplankton. Current literature shows that microplastic ingestion has been recorded in 39 zooplankton species from 28 taxonomic orders including holo- and meroplanktonic species. The majority of studies occurred under laboratory conditions and negative effects were reported in ten studies (45%) demonstrating effects on feeding behaviour, growth, development, reproduction and lifespan. In contrast, three studies (14%) reported no negative effects from microplastic ingestion. Several physical and biological factors can influence the bioavailability of microplastics to zooplankton, such as size, shape, age and abundance. We identified that microplastics used in experiments are often different to those quantified in the marine environment, particularly in terms of concentration, shape, type and age. We therefore suggest that future research should include microplastics that are more representative of those found in the marine environment at relevant concentrations. Additionally, investigating the effects of microplastic ingestion on a broader range of zooplankton species and life stages, will help to answer key knowledge gaps regarding the effect of microplastic on recruitment, species populations and ultimately broader economic consequences such as impacts on shell- and finfish stocks.
73Ecotoxicological effects of micro- and nanoplastics on terrestrial food web from plants to human beings.PubMed
Wenfeng Wang, Anh T Ngoc Do, Jung-Hwan Kwon
Sci Total Environ. 2022 Aug 15;834:155333. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155333. Epub 2022 Apr 19.
Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are present in almost all environmental compartments. Terrestrial soils are major environmental reservoirs for MNPs, but the ecotoxicological effects of MNPs on terrestrial biota remain relatively understudied. In this review, we collated findings of previous research on the uptake and impact of MNPs in terrestrial organisms, including flora, fauna, and human beings. Terrestrial plants can take up MNPs via the roots or leaves and translocate them to other parts. MNPs have been detected in the gastrointestinal tracts or feces of many terrestrial animals, including some high trophic-level predators, indicating the incidence of direct ingestion or trophic transfer of MNPs. The presence of MNPs in food items and human feces combines to verify human intake of MNPs via the dietary pathway. Exposure to MNPs can cause diverse effects on terrestrial organisms, including alterations in growth performance, oxidative stress, metabolic disturbance, cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and mortality. The biological internalization and impact of MNPs are influenced by the physicochemical properties of MNPs (e.g., particle size, polymer type, surface chemistry, and exposure concentrations) and the physiology of the species. MNPs can also affect the bioavailability of co-occurring intrinsic or extrinsic contaminants to terrestrial biota, but their specific role is under dispute. Finally, we underlined the current research gaps and proposed several priorities for future studies.
74Micro- and Nano-plastics and Human HealthOpenAlex
Tamara S. Galloway
Plastics are highly versatile materials that have brought huge societal benefits. They can be manufactured at low cost and their lightweight and adaptable nature has a myriad of applications in all aspects of everyday life, including food packaging, consumer products, medical devices and construction. By 2050, however, it is anticipated that an extra 33 billion tonnes of plastic will be added to the planet. Given that most currently used plastic polymers are highly resistant to degradation, this influx of persistent, complex materials is a risk to human and environmental health. Continuous daily interaction with plastic items allows oral, dermal and inhalation exposure to chemical components, leading to the widespread presence in the human body of chemicals associated with plastics. Indiscriminate disposal places a huge burden on waste management systems, allowing plastic wastes to infiltrate ecosystems, with the potential to contaminate the food chain. Of particular concern has been the reported presence of microscopic plastic debris, or microplastics (debris ≤1 mm in size), in aquatic, terrestrial and marine habitats. Yet, the potential for microplastics and nanoplastics of environmental origin to cause harm to human health remains understudied. In this article, some of the most widely encountered plastics in everyday use are identified and their potential hazards listed. Different routes of exposure to human populations, both of plastic additives, microplastics and nanoplastics from food items and from discarded debris are discussed. Risks associated with plastics and additives considered to be of most concern for human health are identified. Finally, some recent developments in delivering a new generation of safer, more sustainable polymers are considered.
75Bioavailability of Microplastics to Marine Zooplankton: Effect of Shape and Infochemicals.PubMed
Zara L R Botterell, Nicola Beaumont, Matthew Cole, et al.
Environ Sci Technol. 2020 Oct 6;54(19):12024-12033. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.0c02715. Epub 2020 Sep 14.
The underlying mechanisms that influence microplastic ingestion in marine zooplankton remain poorly understood. Here, we investigate how microplastics of a variety of shapes (bead, fiber, and fragment), in combination with the algal-derived infochemicals dimethyl sulfide (DMS) and dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP), affect the ingestion rate of microplastics in three species of zooplankton, the copepods and and larvae of the European lobster . We show that shape affects microplastic bioavailability to different species of zooplankton, with each species ingesting significantly more of a certain shape: -fragments ( < 0.05); -fibers ( < 0.01); larvae-beads ( < 0.05). Thus, different feeding strategies between species may affect shape selectivity. Our results also showed significantly increased ingestion rates by on all microplastics that were infused with DMS ( < 0.01) and by larvae and on DMS-infused fibers and fragments ( < 0.05). By using a range of more environmentally relevant microplastics, our findings highlight how the feeding strategies of different zooplankton species may influence their susceptibility to microplastic ingestion. Furthermore, our novel study suggests that species reliant on chemosensory cues to locate their prey may be at an increased risk of ingesting aged microplastics in the marine environment.
76Microplastics supply contaminants in food chain: non-negligible threat to health safety.PubMed
Hongwen Xu, Zhenyang Hu, Yingying Sun, et al.
Environ Geochem Health. 2024 Jul 3;46(8):276. doi: 10.1007/s10653-024-02076-2.
The occurrence of microplastics (MPs) and organic pollutants (OPs) residues is commonly observed in diverse environmental settings, where their interactions can potentially alter the behavior, availability, and toxicity of OPs, thereby posing risks to ecosystems. Herein, we particularly emphasize the potential for bioaccumulation and the biomagnification effect of MPs in the presence of OPs within the food chain. Despite the ongoing influx of novel information, there exists a dearth of data concerning the destiny and consequences of MPs in the context of food pollution. Further endeavors are imperative to unravel the destiny and repercussions of MPs/OPs within food ecosystems and processing procedures, aiming to gain a deeper understanding of the joint effect on human health and food quality. Nevertheless, the adsorption and desorption behavior of coexisting pollutants can be significantly influenced by MPs forming biofilms within real-world environments, including temperature, pH, and food constituents. A considerable portion of MPs tend to accumulate in the epidermis of vegetables and fruits, thus necessitating further research to comprehend the potential ramifications of MPs on the infiltration behavior of OPs on agricultural product surfaces.
77The bio-accumulation and -magnification of microplastics under predator-prey isotopic relationships.PubMed
Shike Gao, Shuo Zhang, Zhihua Feng, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2024 Dec 5;480:135896. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.135896. Epub 2024 Sep 27.
Recent studies on microplastics (MPs) in marine ecosystems have focused on their bioaccumulation and biomagnification within food chains, emphasizing their potential health risks to humans. However, these bio-effects of MPs in marine ecosystems remain a contentious issue. Employing the "consumer-dietary source" tracking function in stable isotope analysis can enhance our comprehension of how MPs magnify in organisms. In our research conducted in the coastal waters of Haizhou Bay, Jiangsu, China, we examined two commercially important fish species, Larimichthys polyactis and Collichthys lucidus, through stable isotope analysis to investigate the accumulation of MPs in their dietary sources. Results revealed fiber, blue, and PET as the primary shapes, colors, and polymers of MPs in the region. C. lucidus displayed a broader isotopic niche and a higher propensity for MP accumulation than L. polyactis. Biomagnification analysis indicated that dominant MP shapes, colors, and polymers were magnified in both fish species, with MPs smaller than 3 mm exhibiting substantial biomagnification. Factors such as feeding strategies and habitat preferences may influence MP ingestion by fish. We conclude that a high proportion of dietary sources in fish does not necessarily equate to a high concentration of MPs. Neglecting the proportion of dietary sources might lead to underestimating MP biomagnification. Therefore, a multidimensional approach to exploring the biomagnification of MPs is essential to accurately grasp this unique pollutant's impact.
78Ecological effects of micro/nanoplastics on plant-associated food webs.PubMed
Muhammad Ilyas, Carlos M Duarte, Elvis Genbo Xu, et al.
Trends Plant Sci. 2025 May;30(5):526-538. doi: 10.1016/j.tplants.2024.11.018. Epub 2024 Dec 27.
Micro/nanoplastics (MNPs) contamination is a potential threat to global biodiversity and ecosystem functions, with unclear ecological impacts on aboveground (AG) and belowground (BG) food webs in terrestrial ecosystems. Here, we discuss the uptake, ingestion, bioaccumulation, and ecotoxicological effects of MNPs in plants and associated AG-BG biota at various trophic levels. We propose key pathways for MNPs transfer between the AG-BG food webs and elaborate their impact on terrestrial ecosystem multifunctionality. We conclude that MNPs are bioaccumulated in most studied plants and associated AG-BG biota and can be transferred along AG-BG food webs, which may profoundly impact ecosystem functioning. However, most pathways are still untested. Future research on MNPs should focus on the interactions within AG-BG food webs in terrestrial ecosystems.
79A Detailed Review Study on Potential Effects of Microplastics and Additives of Concern on Human HealthOpenAlex
Claudia Campanale, Carmine Massarelli, Ilaria Savino, et al.
The distribution and abundance of microplastics into the world are so extensive that many scientists use them as key indicators of the recent and contemporary period defining a new historical epoch: The Plasticene. However, the implications of microplastics are not yet thoroughly understood. There is considerable complexity involved to understand their impact due to different physical-chemical properties that make microplastics multifaceted stressors. If, on the one hand, microplastics carry toxic chemicals in the ecosystems, thus serving as vectors of transport, they are themselves, on the other hand, a cocktail of hazardous chemicals that are added voluntarily during their production as additives to increase polymer properties and prolong their life. To date, there is a considerable lack of knowledge on the major additives of concern that are used in the plastic industry, on their fate once microplastics dispose into the environment, and on their consequent effects on human health when associated with micro and nanoplastics. The present study emphasizes the most toxic and dangerous chemical substances that are contained in all plastic products to describe the effects and implications of these hazardous chemicals on human health, providing a detailed overview of studies that have investigated their abundance on microplastics. In the present work, we conducted a capillary review of the literature on micro and nanoplastic exposure pathways and their potential risk to human health to summarize current knowledge with the intention of better focus future research in this area and fill knowledge gaps.
80Effects of microplastics and arsenic on plants: Interactions, toxicity and environmental implications.PubMed
Nishita Ivy, Sayan Bhattacharya, Satarupa Dey, et al.
Chemosphere. 2023 Oct;338:139542. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139542. Epub 2023 Jul 18.
Microplastics are emerging pollutants that are ubiquitously present in environment. Occurrence and dispersion of microplastics in the soil can pose a considerable risk to soil health and biodiversity, including the plants grown in the soil. Uptake and bioaccumulation of microplastics can have detrimental effects on different plant species. Additionally, the co-presence of microplastics and arsenic can cause synergistic, antagonistic, or potentiating toxic impacts on plants. However, limited studies are available on the combined effects of microplastics and arsenic on plants. This paper elucidates both the individual and synergistic effects of microplastics and arsenic on plants. At the outset, the paper highlighted the presence and degradation of microplastics in soil. Subsequently, the interactions between microplastics and plants, accumulation, and influences of microplastics on plant growth and metabolism were explained with underlying mechanisms. Combined effects of microplastics and arsenic on plant growth, metabolism, and toxicity were discussed thereafter. Combined toxic effects of microplastics and arsenic on plants can have detrimental implications on environment, ecosystems and biodiversity. Further investigations on food chain and human health are needed in the context of microplastic-arsenic interactions.
82Microplastic/nanoplastic toxicity in plants: an imminent concern.PubMed
Tapati Roy, Thuhin K Dey, Mamun Jamal
Environ Monit Assess. 2022 Oct 24;195(1):27. doi: 10.1007/s10661-022-10654-z.
The toxic impact of microplastics/nanoplastics (MPs/NPs) in plants and the food chain has recently become a top priority. Several research articles highlighted the impact of MPs/NPs on the aquatic food chain; however, very little has been done in the terrestrial ecosystem. A number of studies revealed that MPs/NPs uptake and subsequent translocation in plants alter plant morphological, physiological, biochemical, and genetic properties to varying degrees. However, there is a research gap regarding MPs/NPs entry into plants, associated factors influencing phytotoxicity levels, and potential remediation plans in terms of food safety and security. To address these issues, all sources of MPs/NPs intrusion in agroecosystems should be revised to avoid these hazardous materials with special consideration as preventive measures. Furthermore, this review focuses on the routes of accumulation and transmission of MPs/NPs into plant tissues, related aspects influencing the intensity of plant stress, and potential solutions to improve food quality and quantity. This paper also concludes by providing an outlook approach of applying exogenous melatonin and introducing engineered plants that would enhance stress tolerance against MPs/NPs. In addition, an overview of inoculation of beneficial microorganisms and encapsulated enzymes in soil has been addressed, which would make the degradation of MPs/NPs faster.
83Microplastic Uptake in Vegetables: Sources, Mechanisms, Transport and Food Safety.PubMed
Zorana Srećkov, Zorica Mrkonjić, Mirjana Bojović, et al.
Toxics. 2025 Jul 22;13(8):609. doi: 10.3390/toxics13080609.
Although microplastic pollution has been recognized as one of the major environmental challenges of the 21st century, its toxicological impact on crops, especially vegetables, has attracted limited scientific attention until recently. Vegetables represent a key component of the human diet, making any potential contamination of great importance for food safety. In recent years, an increasing number of studies have been conducted to investigate the interactions between microplastics and vegetable crops. This review aims to synthesize the current knowledge on the sources of microplastics in agroecosystems, the mechanisms of uptake and translocation in plants, and the physiological and biochemical responses induced by micro- and nanoplastics. This work aims to improve the scientific basis for assessing the risk of microplastic contamination by identifying gaps in current understanding and suggesting future research directions.
84Uptake and Accumulation of Nano/Microplastics in Plants: A Critical ReviewOpenAlex
Imran Azeem, Muhammad Adeel, Muhammad Arslan Ahmad, et al.
The ubiquitous presence of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) in the environment is an undeniable and serious concern due to their higher persistence and extensive use in agricultural production. This review highlights the sources and fate of MPs and NPs in soil and their uptake, translocation, and physiological effects in the plant system. We provide the current snapshot of the latest reported studies with the majority of literature spanning the last five years. We draw attention to the potential risk of MPs and NPs in modern agriculture and their effects on plant growth and development. We also highlight their uptake and transport pathways in roots and leaves via different exposure methods in plants. Conclusively, agricultural practices, climate changes (wet weather and heavy rainfall), and soil organisms play a major role in transporting MPs and NPs in soil. NPs are more prone to enter plant cell walls as compared to MPs. Furthermore, transpiration pull is the dominant factor in the plant uptake and translocation of plastic particles. MPs have negligible negative effects on plant physiological and biochemical indicators. Overall, there is a dire need to establish long-term studies for a better understanding of their fate and associated risks mechanisms in realistic environment scenarios for safe agricultural functions.
85Gathering at the top? Environmental controls of microplastic uptake and biomagnification in freshwater food webs.PubMed
Stefan Krause, Viktor Baranov, Holly A Nel, et al.
Environ Pollut. 2021 Jan 1;268(Pt A):115750. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115750. Epub 2020 Oct 27.
Microplastics are ubiquitous in the environment, with high concentrations being detected now also in river corridors and sediments globally. Whilst there has been increasing field evidence of microplastics accumulation in the guts and tissues of freshwater and marine aquatic species, the uptake mechanisms of microplastics into freshwater food webs, and the physical and geological controls on pathway-specific exposures to microplastics, are not well understood. This knowledge gap is hampering the assessment of exposure risks, and potential ecotoxicological and public health impacts from microplastics. This review provides a comprehensive synthesis of key research challenges in analysing the environmental fate and transport of microplastics in freshwater ecosystems, including the identification of hydrological, sedimentological and particle property controls on microplastic accumulation in aquatic ecosystems. This mechanistic analysis outlines the dominant pathways for exposure to microplastics in freshwater ecosystems and identifies potentially critical uptake mechanisms and entry pathways for microplastics and associated contaminants into aquatic food webs as well as their risk to accumulate and biomagnify. We identify seven key research challenges that, if overcome, will permit the advancement beyond current conceptual limitations and provide the mechanistic process understanding required to assess microplastic exposure, uptake, hazard, and overall risk to aquatic systems and humans, and provide key insights into the priority impact pathways in freshwater ecosystems to support environmental management decision making.
86Human Consumption of Microplastics.PubMed
Kieran D Cox, Garth A Covernton, Hailey L Davies, et al.
Environ Sci Technol. 2019 Jun 18;53(12):7068-7074. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.9b01517. Epub 2019 Jun 5.
Microplastics are ubiquitous across ecosystems, yet the exposure risk to humans is unresolved. Focusing on the American diet, we evaluated the number of microplastic particles in commonly consumed foods in relation to their recommended daily intake. The potential for microplastic inhalation and how the source of drinking water may affect microplastic consumption were also explored. Our analysis used 402 data points from 26 studies, which represents over 3600 processed samples. Evaluating approximately 15% of Americans' caloric intake, we estimate that annual microplastics consumption ranges from 39000 to 52000 particles depending on age and sex. These estimates increase to 74000 and 121000 when inhalation is considered. Additionally, individuals who meet their recommended water intake through only bottled sources may be ingesting an additional 90000 microplastics annually, compared to 4000 microplastics for those who consume only tap water. These estimates are subject to large amounts of variation; however, given methodological and data limitations, these values are likely underestimates.
87Analysis of microplastics in various foods and assessment of aggregate human exposure via food consumption in korea.PubMed
Dat Thanh Pham, Jinwoo Kim, Sang-Hwa Lee, et al.
Environ Pollut. 2023 Apr 1;322:121153. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121153. Epub 2023 Jan 25.
Evidence of microplastics in humans has recently been demonstrated. The primary route of human exposure to microplastics is consumption of contaminated food and water. However, quantitative estimations of exposure to microplastics are limited, which hinders human health risk assessments. In this study, abundances of microplastics were measured in eight food types, comprising 90 products of table salts, soy sauces, fish sauces, salted seafood, seaweed, honey, beer, and beverage. Aggregate human exposure to microplastics via food consumption was assessed based on the number and mass of microplastics, using deterministic calculations and Monte Carlo simulations. The determinations revealed that average adult Koreans likely ingest 1.4 × 10 and 3.1 × 10 g of microplastics per week, respectively. These results are orders of magnitude smaller than earlier estimates of 0.1-5 g of microplastics per week that likely chose experimental outliers. Therefore, careful selection of literature data and estimation methods is needed to provide more realistic exposure estimations from microplastic counts. This study extends our understanding of MP occurrence in food and provides a more thorough estimate of aggregate microplastic exposure via food consumption.
88Microplastics contamination in the most popular brands of Iranian sausages and evaluation of its human exposure.PubMed
Meghdad Pirsaheb, Monireh Nouri, Tooraj Massahi, et al.
Heliyon. 2024 Jul 9;10(14):e34363. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e34363. eCollection 2024 Jul 30.
Microplastics (MPs) pollution represents a nascent environmental contaminant that has recently infiltrated human life and the food chain. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the presence of MPs in different brands of Iranian sausages. Qualitative and quantitative analyses of MPs particles were conducted using stereo- and fluorescent microscopy, FT-IR (Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy), and SEM-EDS (Scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy) techniques. Samples were collected from the most commonly consumed sausage brands in Iranian markets. The findings showed that the various sausage brands contained an average abundance of 25.7 ± 21.68 (range 10-70) and 55.45 ± 45.5 (range 10-175) particles/kg based on optical and fluorescent microscopy analyses, respectively. Predominantly, MPs were identified in fiber form (77-89 %), with a smaller proportion present in fragmented form (11-23 %). Polymer analysis using FT-IR identified polyethylene (PE) and polystyrene (PS) as the primary constituents. Furthermore, the estimated annual intake (EAI) of MPs was calculated at 804 and 3517 particles/kg bw/year for adults and children, respectively, based on optical microscopy observations. In comparison, fluorescent microscopy indicated an intake of 1734 and 7589 particles/kg bw/year for the respective age groups. These results emphasize the potential of MPs contamination to penetrate into different food products including sausages through processing routes, which can threaten human health.
89Occurrence and health risk assessment of microplastics in beverages and ice packs.PubMed
Armita Soudavari, Fateme Barari, Ehsan Ehsani, et al.
Sci Rep. 2025 Jul 2;15(1):23584. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-08821-6.
Microplastics (MPs) are increasingly recognized as pervasive pollutants in food and beverage products, posing potential risks to human health and ecosystems. The purpose of this research is to investigate the presence and concentration of MPs in various beverages and ice packs through quantitative analysis, and to evaluate the potential health risks associated with human exposure to these contaminants. Samples underwent filtration and organic matter digestion with hydrogen peroxide, followed by analysis using stereomicroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX). The results indicated mean microplastic (MP) concentrations of 183.1 particles/L in beverages and 178.9 particles/L in ice packs, predominantly composed of polypropylene (PP) (80%) and poly (ethylene terephthalate) (PET) (20%). Morphologically, fragments comprised 54% of MPs in beverages and 53% in ice packs, while fibers accounted for 46% and 47%, respectively, with particle sizes ranging from 4.54 to 1,490 μm. Transparent MPs dominated (90%), likely due to prevalent packaging materials. The estimated daily intake (EDI) was higher in adults (5.49 particles/kg/day) than in children (2.19 particles/kg/day), with ingestion being the primary route of exposure. Microplastic contamination in beverage samples was assessed using the microplastic contamination factor (MPCF) and the microplastic pollution load index (MPLI). Brand C showed the highest contamination (MPCF: 9.34), while the average MPLI (8.26) indicated ecological risk level 1. This study confirms the widespread presence of microplastics in carbonated soft drinks and ice packs. Consequently, further research is essential to evaluate the long-term health effects and to develop strategies for reducing plastic usage in food packaging.
90Exposure to microplastics and human reproductive outcomes: A systematic review.PubMed
Kathryn Hunt, Anna Davies, Abigail Fraser, et al.
BJOG. 2024 Apr;131(5):675-683. doi: 10.1111/1471-0528.17756. Epub 2024 Jan 29.
BACKGROUND: Microplastics, produced through degradation of environmental plastic pollution, have been detected in human tissues including placenta and fetal meconium. Cell culture and animal studies have demonstrated potential reproductive toxicity of these particles; however, their association with adverse fertility or pregnancy outcomes in humans is not known. OBJECTIVES: To synthesise evidence for the presence of microplastics in human reproductive tissue and their associations with environmental exposures and reproductive outcomes. SEARCH STRATEGY: MEDLINE, Embase, Emcare, CINAHL, ClinicalTrials.gov and ICTRP were searched from inception to 03/02/2023. SELECTION CRITERIA: Studies of human participants, assessing presence of microplastics in reproductive tissues, environmental exposures to microplastics, and fertility- or pregnancy-related outcomes. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two independent reviewers selected studies and extracted data on study characteristics, microplastics detected, environmental exposures and reproductive outcomes. Narrative synthesis was performed due to methodological heterogeneity. MAIN RESULTS: Of 1094 citations, seven studies were included, covering 96 participants. Microplastics composed of 16 different polymer types were detected in both placental and meconium samples. Two studies reported associations between lifestyle factors (daily water intake, use of scrub cleanser or toothpaste, bottled water and takeaway food) and placental microplastics. One study reported associations between meconium microplastics and reduced microbiota diversity. One reported placental microplastic levels correlated with reduced birthweights and 1-minute Apgar scores. CONCLUSIONS: There is a need for high-quality observational studies to assess the effects of microplastics on human reproductive health.
91Microplastics: Human exposure assessment through air, water, and food.PubMed
Giuseppina Zuri, Angeliki Karanasiou, Sílvia Lacorte
Environ Int. 2023 Sep;179:108150. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2023.108150. Epub 2023 Aug 14.
BACKGROUND: Microplastics (MP) are plastic particles with dimension up to 5 mm. Due to their persistence, global spread across different ecosystems and potential human health effects, they have gained increasing attention during the last decade. However, the extent of human exposure to MP through different pathways and their intake have not been elucidated. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this review is to provide an overview on the pathways of exposure to MP through inhalation, ingestion, and dermal contact considering data from the open bibliography on MP in air, dust, food, water and drinks. METHODS: A bibliographic search on Scopus and PubMed was conducted using keywords on MP in outdoor and indoor air, indoor dust, food including beverages and water and human intake (n = 521). Articles were sorted by their title and abstract (n = 213), and only studies reporting MP identification and quantification techniques were further considered (n = 168). A total of 115 articles that include quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) procedures are finally discussed in the present review. Based on MP concentration data available in literature, we estimated the potential inhaled dose (ID), dust intake (DI), the estimated daily intake (EDI) via food and beverages. Finally, the total daily intake (TDI) considering both inhalation and ingestion routes are provided for adults, infants and newborns. RESULTS: The concentrations of MP in outdoor and indoor air, dust, and in food and water are provided according to the bibliography. Human exposure to MP through dust ingestion, inhalation of air and food/drinks consumption revealed that indoor air and drinking waters were the main sources of MP. CONCLUSIONS: This study reveals that humans are constantly exposed to MP, and that the indoor environment and the food and water we ingest decisively contribute to MP intake. Additionally, we highlight that infants and newborns are exposed to high MP concentrations and further studies are needed to evaluate the presence and risk of MP in this vulnerable age-population.
92Quantification of selected microplastics in Australian urban road dust.PubMed
Stacey O'Brien, Elvis Dartey Okoffo, Cassandra Rauert, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2021 Aug 15;416:125811. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125811. Epub 2021 Apr 8.
Microplastics (1 - 5000 µm) are pervasive in every compartment of our environment. However, little is understood regarding the concentration and size distribution of microplastics in road dust, and how they change in relation to human activity. Within road dust, microplastics move through the environment via atmospheric transportation and stormwater run-off into waterways. Human exposure pathways to road dust include dermal contact, inhalation and ingestion. In this study, road dust along an urban to rural transect within South-East Queensland, Australia was analysed using Accelerated Solvent Extraction followed by pyrolysis Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (Pyr-GC/MS). Polypropylene, polystyrene, polyethylene terephthalate, polyvinyl chloride, poly (methyl methacrylate) and polyethylene were quantified. Microplastic concentrations ranged from ~0.5 mg/g (rural site) to 6 mg/g (Brisbane city), consisting primarily of polyvinyl chloride (29%) and polyethylene terephthalate (29%). Size fractionation (< 250 µm, 250-500 µm, 500-1000 µm, 1000-2000 µm and 2000-5000 µm) established that the < 250 µm size fraction contained the majority of microplastics by mass (mg/g). Microplastic concentrations in road dust demonstrated a significant relationship with the volume of vehicles (r = 0.63), suggesting traffic, as a proxy for human movement, is associated with increased microplastic concentrations in the built environment.
93Microplastics in Airborne Particulate Matter: A Comprehensive Review of Separation Techniques, In Vitro Toxicity and Health Impacts.PubMed
Dominika Uchmanowicz, Katarzyna Styszko, Xijuan Chen, et al.
Int J Mol Sci. 2025 Oct 23;26(21):10332. doi: 10.3390/ijms262110332.
Microplastics (MPs) are emerging airborne pollutants that can migrate through various environmental pathways, with air representing one of the most critical exposure routes. Their occurrence within suspended particulate matter (PM)-a major atmospheric pollutant associated with respiratory, cardiovascular, and neurological diseases-further amplifies the risks posed by air pollution. The main sources of airborne MPs include tire and road wear, degradation of larger plastic debris, and wind-driven resuspension from soil and landfills. This review provides a comprehensive synthesis of current knowledge on airborne MPs, integrating methodological and toxicological perspectives. It summarizes sampling and separation procedures (filtration, chemical digestion, density separation) and analytical techniques for qualitative and quantitative identification. Particular emphasis is placed on the toxicological implications of MPs, including oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, and potential carcinogenicity, as revealed by in vitro and mechanistic studies. In light of the absence of standardized methodologies, this work highlights the urgent need for harmonized protocols linking environmental monitoring with biological toxicity assessment. By combining information on analytical workflows and cellular responses, this review serves as a key reference for developing environmentally relevant experimental designs and evaluating health risks associated with airborne microplastics. It therefore bridges the gap between environmental analysis and toxicological research, outlining future priorities for methodological standardization and risk assessment.
94Microplastic and plastic pollution: impact on respiratory disease and health.PubMed
Gwenda F Vasse, Barbro N Melgert
Eur Respir Rev. 2024 Jun 12;33(172). doi: 10.1183/16000617.0226-2023. Print 2024 Apr.
Throughout their lifecycle, from production to use and upon disposal, plastics release chemicals and particles known as micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) that can accumulate in the environment. MNPs have been detected in different locations of the human body, including in our lungs. This is likely a consequence of MNP exposure through the air we breathe. Yet, we still lack a comprehensive understanding of the impact that MNP exposure may have on respiratory disease and health. In this review, we have collated the current body of evidence on the implications of MNP inhalation on human lung health from , and occupational exposure studies. We focused on interactions between MNP pollution and different specific lung-resident cells and respiratory diseases. We conclude that it is evident that MNPs possess the capacity to affect lung tissue in disease and health. Yet, it remains unclear to which extent this occurs upon exposure to ambient levels of MNPs, emphasising the need for a more comprehensive evaluation of environmental MNP exposure levels in everyday life.
95Advanced chromatographic techniques for assessing human-relevant exposure pathways to micro- and nanoplastics.PubMed
Magdalena Podbielska, Ewa Szpyrka
Sci Total Environ. 2025 Dec 15;1008:181054. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2025.181054. Epub 2025 Nov 25.
Concerns surrounding micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) have increased as a result of their pervasive distribution in the environment and the possible threats they pose. Precise identification and quantification of MNPs are essential for evaluating their environmental fate, transformation mechanisms, and potential health impacts on humans. The escalating presence of MNPs in consumer products has heightened scientific concern regarding potential human exposure. This review integrates chromatographic workflows with human-relevant exposure pathways (air, water, food, cosmetics, human tissues). Compared with previous reviews that focus mainly on environmental detection or specific techniques, we emphasize methodological advances, and quality assurance challenges. Our synthesis highlights that pyrolysis coupled with chromatography mass spectrometry and thermal extraction-desorption gas chromatography provide bulk quantitative data and polymer-specific fingerprints, even when particles are below the visualisation threshold, while liquid chromatography based workflows are emerging for additives and degradation products. Current evidence indicates that ingestion is the dominant exposure pathway, followed by inhalation, while dermal uptake remains comparatively limited and less well-established. Despite continuous progress, knowledge gaps remain, particularly in cosmetics analysis, where chromatographic applications are scarce compared to food, water, and air. Standardisation issues, matrix interferences, and toxicological interpretation challenges were also discussed. In general, the review emphasises the growing importance of the chromatographic analysis in elucidating the sources, pathways, and health implications of MNPs outline strategic directions for connecting analytical advances with toxicological and public health research.
96Microplastics detected in cirrhotic liver tissue.PubMed
Thomas Horvatits, Matthias Tamminga, Beibei Liu, et al.
EBioMedicine. 2022 Aug;82:104147. doi: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2022.104147. Epub 2022 Jul 11.
BACKGROUND: The contamination of ecosystem compartments by microplastics (MPs) is an ubiquitous problem. MPs have been observed in mice tissues, and recently in human blood, stool and placenta. However, two aspects remain unclear: whether MPs accumulate in peripheral organs, specifically in the liver, and if liver cirrhosis favours this process. We aimed to examine human liver tissue samples to determine whether MPs accumulate in the liver. METHODS: This proof-of-concept case series, conducted in Germany, Europe, analyzed tissue samples of 6 patients with liver cirrhosis and 5 individuals without underlying liver disease. A total of 17 samples (11 liver, 3 kidney and 3 spleen samples) were analyzed according to the final protocol. A reliable method for detection of MP particles from 4 to 30 µm in human tissue was developed. Chemical digestion of tissue samples, staining with Nile red, subsequent fluorescent microscopy and Raman spectroscopy were performed. Morphology, size and composition of MP polymers were assessed. FINDINGS: Considering the limit of detection, all liver, kidney and spleen samples from patients without underlying liver disease tested negative for MPs. In contrast, MP concentrations in cirrhotic liver tissues tested positive and showed significantly higher concentrations compared to liver samples of individuals without underlying liver disease. Six different microplastic polymers ranging from 4 to 30 µm in size were detected. INTERPRETATION: This proof-of-concept case series assessed the presence of MPs in human liver tissue and found six different MP polymers in the liver of individuals with liver cirrhosis, but not in those without underlying liver disease. Future studies are needed to evaluate whether hepatic MP accumulation represents a potential cause in the pathogenesis of fibrosis, or a consequence of cirrhosis and portal hypertension. FUNDING: No funding was received for conducting this investigator driven study.
97Microplastics exposure: implications for human fertility, pregnancy and child health.PubMed
Rewa E Zurub, Yusmaris Cariaco, Michael G Wade, et al.
Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2024 Jan 4;14:1330396. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1330396. eCollection 2023.
Plastics found in our everyday environment are becoming an increasing concern for individual and population-level health, and the extent of exposure and potential toxic effects of these contaminants on numerous human organ systems are becoming clear. Microplastics (MPs), tiny plastic particles, appear to have many of the same biological effects as their plastic precursors and have the compounded effect of potential accumulation in different organs. Recently, microplastic accumulation was observed in the human placenta, raising important questions related to the biological effects of these contaminants on the health of pregnancies and offspring. These concerns are particularly heightened considering the developmental origins of health and disease (DOHaD) framework, which postulates that exposure can programme the lifelong health of the offspring. The current review examines the state of knowledge on this topic and highlights important avenues for future investigation.
98Bioaccumulation of microplastics in decedent human brains.PubMed
Alexander J Nihart, Marcus A Garcia, Eliane El Hayek, et al.
Nat Med. 2025 Apr;31(4):1114-1119. doi: 10.1038/s41591-024-03453-1. Epub 2025 Feb 3.
Rising global concentrations of environmental microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) drive concerns for human exposure and health outcomes. Complementary methods for the robust detection of tissue MNPs, including pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and electron microscopy with energy-dispersive spectroscopy, confirm the presence of MNPs in human kidney, liver and brain. MNPs in these organs primarily consist of polyethylene, with lesser but significant concentrations of other polymers. Brain tissues harbor higher proportions of polyethylene compared to the composition of the plastics in liver or kidney, and electron microscopy verified the nature of the isolated brain MNPs, which present largely as nanoscale shard-like fragments. Plastic concentrations in these decedent tissues were not influenced by age, sex, race/ethnicity or cause of death; the time of death (2016 versus 2024) was a significant factor, with increasing MNP concentrations over time in both liver and brain samples (P = 0.01). Finally, even greater accumulation of MNPs was observed in a cohort of decedent brains with documented dementia diagnosis, with notable deposition in cerebrovascular walls and immune cells. These results highlight a critical need to better understand the routes of exposure, uptake and clearance pathways and potential health consequences of plastics in human tissues, particularly in the brain.
99Effects of microplastics on the kidneys: a narrative review.PubMed
Rodrigo Bueno de Oliveira, Lauter E Pelepenko, Daniela A Masaro, et al.
Kidney Int. 2024 Sep;106(3):400-407. doi: 10.1016/j.kint.2024.05.023. Epub 2024 Jun 18.
Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics are small synthetic organic polymer particles (<5 mm and <1 μm, respectively) that originate directly from plastic compounds or result from the degradation of plastic. These particles are a global concern because they are widely distributed in water, air, food, and soil, and recent scientific evidence has linked MPs to negative biological effects. Although these particles are difficult to detect in humans, MPs have been identified in different biological fluids and tissues, such as the placenta, lung, intestines, liver, blood, urine, and kidneys. Human exposure to MPs can occur by ingestion, inhalation, or dermal contact, potentially causing metabolic alterations. Data from experimental and clinical studies have revealed that the ability of MPs to promote inflammation, oxidative stress, and organ dysfunction and negatively affect clinical outcomes is associated with their accumulation in body fluids and tissues. Although evidence of the putative action of MPs in the human kidney is still scarce, there is growing interest in studying MPs in this organ. In addition, chronic kidney disease requires investigation because this condition is potentially prone to MP accumulation. The purpose of the present article is (i) to review the general aspects of MP generation, available analytic methods for identification, and the main known biological toxic effects; and (ii) to describe and critically analyze key experimental and clinical studies that support a role of MPs in kidney disease.
100Discovery and analysis of microplastics in human bone marrow.PubMed
Xiaoli Guo, Lin Wang, Xiaoyang Wang, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2024 Sep 15;477:135266. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.135266. Epub 2024 Jul 20.
The health implications of human exposure to microplastics (MPs) have raised significant concerns. While evidence indicates MPs can accumulate in closed human organs like the heart, placenta, and blood, there is no available data on MP exposure specifically within the human bone marrow. To fill the research gap, this study detected the concentration of microplastics (MPs) in bone marrow samples by pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) and assessed the size range and morphological characteristics of MPs by Laser Direct Infrared Spectroscopy (LD-IR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Our study shows that MPs were present in all 16 bone marrow samples, with an average concentration of 51.29 µg/g ranging from 15.37 µg/g to 92.05 µg/g. Five polymer types-polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyadiohexylenediamine 66 (PA66), and polypropylene (PP), were identified. PE was the most frequent polymer detected in the bone marrow, with an average concentration of 30.02 µg/g ranging from 14.77 µg/g to 52.57 µg/g, with a detection rate of 93.75 %. PS had the highest detection rate at 100 % of bone marrow samples, while PVC and PA66 were found in 75 % of samples each. LD-IR analysis revealed the identification of 25 polymer types, with an average abundance of 19.72 particles/g. Of these, 89.82 % of the MPs were smaller than 100 µm. In summary, this study has, for the first time, demonstrated the presence of MPs are deeply embedded within human bone marrow, providing a basis for future investigations into their potential toxicological effects and underlying mechanisms affecting the hematopoietic system.
101In vivo oxidative stress responses of the freshwater basket clam Corbicula javanicus to microplastic fibres and particles.PubMed
Maranda Esterhuizen, Lucille Buchenhorst, Young Jun Kim, et al.
Chemosphere. 2022 Jun;296:134037. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134037. Epub 2022 Feb 17.
Microplastics have been detected in several aquatic organisms, especially bivalves such as clams, oysters, and mussels. To understand the ecotoxicological implication of microplastic accumulation in biota, it is crucial to investigate effects at the physiological level to identify knowledge gaps regarding the threat posed to the environment and assist decision-makers to set the necessary priorities. Typically, xenobiotics elicit an overproduction of reactive oxygen species in organisms, resulting in oxidative stress and cellular damage when not combated by the antioxidative system. Therefore, the present study aimed to establish the impacts of microplastic particles and fibres on the freshwater basket clam Corbicula javanicus. We measured the oxidative stress responses following microplastic exposure as the specific activities of the antioxidative enzymes glutathione S-transferase and catalase. When exposed to polyester fibres from the fleece jackets, the enzyme activities increased in the clams, while the enzyme activities decreased with high-density polyethylene microplastic fragments from bottle caps. All the exposures showed that the adverse effects on the antioxidative response system were elicited, indicating the negative ecotoxicological implications of microplastic pollution.
102Microplastics in decapod crustaceans: Accumulation, toxicity and impacts, a review.PubMed
Avelyno H D'Costa
Sci Total Environ. 2022 Aug 1;832:154963. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154963. Epub 2022 Apr 1.
The presence of microplastics in the aquatic environment poses a serious threat not only to aquatic organisms but also to human beings that consume them. The uptake and effects of microplastics have been studied in almost all groups of aquatic organisms. This review details the different aspects of microplastics exposure in an ecologically and economically important group of crustaceans, the Decapods. A majority of Decapod crustaceans such as prawns, shrimp, crabs, lobsters and crayfish are consumed as seafood and play important roles in food chains and food webs. Numerous studies are available on the accumulation of microplastics in tissues such as the gills, hepatopancreas and gastrointestinal tract in these organisms. Experimental studies have also highlighted the toxic effects of microplastics such as oxidative stress, immunotoxicity and reproductive and developmental toxicity in them. This review also summarizes the ecological impacts and implications in human beings as well as lacunae with regard to microplastic uptake in Decapods.
103Potential toxicity of nanoplastics to fish and aquatic invertebrates: Current understanding, mechanistic interpretation, and meta-analysis.PubMed
Yaru Han, Fei Lian, Zhenggao Xiao, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2022 Apr 5;427:127870. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127870. Epub 2021 Nov 24.
Nanoplastics (NPs) are widely detected in aquatic ecosystems and attracting considerable attention. Although ecotoxicological impacts of NPs on aquatic biota are increasingly identified, the extent and magnitude of these detrimental effects on fish and aquatic invertebrates still lack systematic quantification and mechanistic interpretation. Here, the toxicity, influencing factors, and related mechanisms of NPs to fish and aquatic invertebrates are critically reviewed and summarized based on a total of 634 biological endpoints through a meta-analysis, where five vital response categories including growth, consumption, reproduction, survival, and behavior were emphasized to elucidate the negative impacts of NPs to fish and aquatic invertebrates from physiological to molecular levels. Our results revealed that NPs significantly decreased the survival, behavior, and reproduction of fish and/or aquatic invertebrates by 56.1%, 24.2%, and 36.0%, respectively. NPs exposure increased the oxidative stress and oxidative damage by 72.0% and 9.6%, respectively; while significantly decreased antioxidant prevention system and neurotransmission by 24.4% and 15.9%, respectively. Also, the effects of particle size, functional group, and concentration range of NPs on the physiological and biochemical reactions in the living organisms were discussed. This information is helpful to more accurately understanding the underlying toxic mechanisms of NPs to aquatic biota and guiding future studies.
104Immunotoxicological effects of perfluorooctanesulfonic acid on European seabass are reduced by polyethylene microplastics.PubMed
Cristóbal Espinosa-Ruiz, Carmen González-Fernández, Bettie Cormier, et al.
Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2023 Jun;137:108793. doi: 10.1016/j.fsi.2023.108793. Epub 2023 May 3.
Marine environments receive plastic waste, where it suffers a transformation process into smaller particles. Among them, microplastics (MPs; <5 mm) are ingested by aquatic organisms leading to negative effects on animal welfare. The interactions between MPs, contaminants and organisms are poorly understood. To clarify this issue, European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) were fed with diets supplemented with 0 (control), polyethylene (PE) MPs (100 mg/kg diet), perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS, 4.83 μg/kg diet) or PFOS adsorbed to MPs (MPs-PFOS; final concentrations of 4.83 μg and 100 mg of PFOS and MP per kg of feed, respectively). Samples of skin mucus, serum, head-kidney (HK), liver, muscle, brain and intestine were obtained. PFOS levels were high in the liver of fish fed with the PFOS-diet, and markedly reduced when adsorbed to MPs. Compared to the control groups, liver EROD activity did not show any significant changes, whereas brain and muscle cholinesterase activities were decreased in all the groups. The histological and morphometrical study on liver and intestine showed significant alterations in fish fed with the experimental diets. At functional level, all the experimental diets affected the humoral (peroxidase, IgM, protease and bactericidal activities) as well as cellular (phagocytosis, respiratory burst and peroxidase) activities of HK leukocytes, being more marked those effects caused by the PFOS diet. Besides, treatments produced inflammation and oxidative stress as evidenced at gene level. Principal component analysis demonstrated that seabass fed with MPs-PFOS showed more similar effects to MPs alone than to PFOS. Overall, seabass fed with MPs-PFOS diet showed similar or lower toxicological alterations than those fed with MPs or PFOS alone demonstrating the lack of additive effects or even protection against PFOS toxicity.
105Reproductive toxicity of micro- and nanoplastics.PubMed
Shaolong Yang, Mengzhen Li, Richard Yuen Chong Kong, et al.
Environ Int. 2023 Jul;177:108002. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2023.108002. Epub 2023 Jun 1.
Large-scale plastic pollution occurs in terrestrial and marine environments and degrades into microparticles (MP) and nanoparticles (NP) of plastic. Micro/nanoplastics (MP/NPs) are found throughout the environment and different kinds of marine organisms and can enter the human body through inhalation or ingestion, particularly through the food chain. MPs/NPs can enter different organisms, and affect different body systems, including the reproductive, digestive, and nervous systems via the induction of different stresses such as oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum stress. This paper summarizes the effects of MPs/NPs of different sizes on the reproduction of different organisms including terrestrial and marine invertebrates and vertebrates, the amplification of toxic effects between them through the food chain, the serious threat to biodiversity, and, more importantly, the imminent challenge to human reproductive health. There is a need to strengthen international communication and cooperation on the remediation of plastic pollution and the protection of biodiversity to build a sustainable association between humans and other organisms.
106Exposure to metals premixed with microplastics increases toxicity through bioconcentration and impairs antioxidant defense and cholinergic response in a marine mysid.PubMed
Hye-Jin Eom, Md Niamul Haque, Somyeong Lee, et al.
Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol. 2021 Nov;249:109142. doi: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2021.109142. Epub 2021 Jul 17.
Coexistence of metals and microplastics (MPs) in aquatic environments represents a growing concern; however, little is known regarding the risks associated with their combined effects. Here, the effects of five metals (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn), alone or combined with MPs for various premixing durations (30 and 60 days), on the juvenile and adult stages of the marine mysid Neomysis awatschensis were evaluated. The toxicity (50% lethal concentration for 96 h) and bioconcentration of metals premixed with MPs were measured, and their effects on the antioxidant defense and cholinergic systems were examined. Metal toxicity increased with increasing premixing period with MPs, and juveniles were more sensitive to exposure to metals premixed with MPs than adults. Metal bioconcentration in the mysid body increased following co-exposure with MPs. Metals premixed with MPs significantly increased intracellular malondialdehyde content at both stages but decreased glutathione content in juveniles. At both stages, catalase and superoxide dismutase activity was suppressed following co-exposure to metals and MPs, except under the Cu treatment. Moreover, co-exposure inhibited acetylcholinesterase activity at both stages, suggesting cholinergic impairment. Taken together, metals and MPs produce synergistic detrimental effects on marine mysids in a stage-specific manner. Further studies are warranted to elucidate the role of MPs as a vector for contaminants and stimulator of toxicity in aquatic organisms.
107Microplastics can alter phytoplankton community composition.PubMed
James N Hitchcock
Sci Total Environ. 2022 May 1;819:153074. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153074. Epub 2022 Jan 14.
Microplastic pollution is a growing concern globally due to the risks they may pose to ecological communities. Phytoplankton are key ecological community in aquatic ecosystems providing both energy to food webs and have critical roles in ecosystem functions such as carbon cycling. To date studies on how microplastics effect phytoplankton have largely been limited to laboratory exposure studies using monocultures of algae. It remains unknown how the structure of phytoplankton communities will be influenced by growing microplastic pollution. The aim of this study was to determine how different concentrations microplastic fibers influence phytoplankton community structure. Two six-day microcosm studies were conducted testing the response of the phytoplankton community to low, medium, and high microplastics concentrations on the Georges River, Australia. The results showed the highest concentrations of microplastics significantly altered the structure phytoplankton community. These differences were largely driven by increased abundances of cyanobacteria taxa Aphanocapsa and Pseudanabaena, and to a lesser extent reduced abundances of taxa including Crucigenia and Chlamydmonas. There were no significant differences between controls and the low and medium treatments in either experiment. The high concentrations used in this experiment whilst likely rare in the environment are environmentally relevant and equivalent to some of more polluted ecosystems. The results highlight the potential risk to food webs and ecosystem functioning through altering the dynamics of primary production and provide evidence for further study examining the response of ecological communities to microplastics in the environment.
108Effects of microplastic biofilms on nutrient cycling in simulated freshwater systems.PubMed
Xianchuan Chen, Xiaofei Chen, Yanhui Zhao, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2020 Jun 1;719:137276. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137276. Epub 2020 Feb 20.
Microplastic surfaces could be colonized by microorganisms and form biofilms in aquatic ecosystem, which can participate in the nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) cycles. In this work, polypropylene squares were deployed in a pond for 30 days for microplastic biofilms colonization and then were transported to indoor microcosms at an environmental relevant level to study their effects on N and P cycling. Results showed that microplastic biofilms could accelerate ammonia and nitrite oxidation as well as denitrification. Presence of microplastic biofilms accumulated P temporarily and increased alkaline phosphatase activities (APA) in the system. Later in the experiment, disintegration of matured biofilms released N and P into the water. Mass balance calculation suggested possible N input caused by biological nitrogen fixation. Our results demonstrated that microplastics associated biofilms have the ability to alter the N and P cycling processes in aquatic system. However, additional works are required to further quantify the extent of such impact.
109Increased inheritance of structure and function of bacterial communities and pathogen propagation in plastisphere along a river with increasing antibiotics pollution gradient.PubMed
Nana Xue, Liyi Wang, Wenfeng Li, et al.
Environ Pollut. 2020 Oct;265(Pt A):114641. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114641. Epub 2020 Apr 21.
Plastic debris provides a stable substrate and novel ecological niche for microorganisms in the aquatic environment, which was referred to as "Plastisphere". Little is known about distribution patterns and responses of ecological function and structure of microbial communities in the plastisphere along rivers which usually have antibiotics pollution gradient. In this study, the differences in the community structure between the plastisphere and the planktonic bacteria, and their spatial variation of the community structure and function along a river with increased antibiotics pollution gradient was investigated at the watershed scale. The diversity of bacteria colonized on most plastic debris was higher than in surrounding water. Plastic debris could accumulate a higher abundance of some potential pathogens than surrounding water even at high antibiotics concentrations. The source tracking results showed that downstream plastisphere inherited much higher proportions of bacterial taxa from upstream than planktonic bacteria. About 92.3-99.7% of bacteria communities in downstream water were not from upstream but from the input of downstream human activities. On the contrary, high proportions of bacterial taxa in downstream plastisphere were closely connected to upstream. The plastisphere possesses higher ecological functional diversity than the planktonic bacteria. Seventy nine functional groups across plastisphere were predicted using functional annotation of prokaryotic taxa and only 65 functional groups were found in the planktonic bacteria. Plastisphere also acts as hotspot for biogeochemical cycling of nutrients such as N and S. Intensive human activities of urban and downstream agriculture and aquaculture had great effects on microbial community structure and functional groups of the Urumqi River. Pastisphere communities are much more resistant to human disturbance than planktonic bacteria. Compared to surrounding water, plastisphere increased inheritance from upstream microbial structure and function and also increased survival and propagation of pathogens in the downstream water with high concentrations of antibiotics.
110Microbial carbon metabolism patterns of microplastic biofilm in the vertical profile of urban rivers.PubMed
Zhenhua Yan, Yufang Chen, Pengpeng Su, et al.
J Environ Manage. 2024 Nov;370:122422. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.122422. Epub 2024 Sep 6.
Microplastics (MPs) can provide a unique niche for microbiota in waters, thus regulating the nutrients and carbon cycling. Following the vertical transport of MPs in waters, the compositions of attached biofilm may be dramatically changed. However, few studies have focused on the related ecological function response, including the carbon metabolism. In this study, we investigated the microbial carbon metabolism patterns of attached biofilm on different MPs in the vertical profile of urban rivers. The results showed that the carbon metabolism capacity of biofilm on the degradable polylactic acid (PLA) MPs was higher than that in the non-degradable polyethylene terephthalate (PET) MPs. In the vertical profile, the carbon metabolism rates of biofilm on two MPs both decreased with water depth, being 0.74 and 0.91 folds in bottom waters of that in surface waters. Specifically, the utilization of polymers, carbohydrate, and amine of PLA biofilm was significantly inhibited in the bottom waters, which were not altered on the PET. Compared with surface waters, the microbial metabolism function index of PLA biofilm was inhibited in deep waters, but elevated in the PET biofilm. In addition, the water quality parameters (e.g., nutrients) in the vertical profile largely shaped carbon metabolism patterns. These findings highlight the distinct carbon metabolism patterns in aquatic environments in the vertical profile, providing new insights into the effects of MPs on global carbon cycle.
111Microplastics in the marine environment.PubMed
Anthony L Andrady
Mar Pollut Bull. 2011 Aug;62(8):1596-605. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.05.030. Epub 2011 Jul 13.
This review discusses the mechanisms of generation and potential impacts of microplastics in the ocean environment. Weathering degradation of plastics on the beaches results in their surface embrittlement and microcracking, yielding microparticles that are carried into water by wind or wave action. Unlike inorganic fines present in sea water, microplastics concentrate persistent organic pollutants (POPs) by partition. The relevant distribution coefficients for common POPs are several orders of magnitude in favour of the plastic medium. Consequently, the microparticles laden with high levels of POPs can be ingested by marine biota. Bioavailability and the efficiency of transfer of the ingested POPs across trophic levels are not known and the potential damage posed by these to the marine ecosystem has yet to be quantified and modelled. Given the increasing levels of plastic pollution of the oceans it is important to better understand the impact of microplastics in the ocean food web.
112Phycosphere as a hotspot of antibiotic resistomes in aquatic environments.PubMed
Jia Jia, Xue Xue, Zhi Wang, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2025 Dec 5;500:140513. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.140513. Epub 2025 Nov 16.
Algal-bacterial interactions represent fundamental ecological processes in aquatic environments, crucially governing nutrient cycling and energy flow within food webs. Beyond their ecological roles, the algal phycosphere has recently been identified as a critical hotspot for the proliferation and enrichment of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). It's reported that the total abundance of ARGs in the phycosphere of microalgae is up to 47-fold higher than in the surrounding water. However, a systematic understanding of how the phycosphere drives ARG dynamics in aquatic ecosystems remains limited. This review synthesizes current evidence to evaluate the mechanisms by which algae influence ARG proliferation within aquatic ecosystems. Findings indicate that in the phycosphere, algal-bacterial interactions shape ARG fate by modulating bacterial community composition. The symbiotic bacteria are specifically enriched in the phycosphere and play important roles in the proliferation of ARGs. Furthermore, exogenous factors (e.g., nutrients, antibiotics, microplastics, and warming) alter these interactions, thereby changing the phycospheric bacterial community and further affecting ARG evolution. Algal blooms typically enhance the dominance of key ARG hosts, promoting aquatic ARG proliferation. The review concludes by outlining research priorities essential for advancing mechanistic insights into algal-associated ARG dynamics.
113Microplastics alter soil structure and microbial community composition.PubMed
Lanfang Han, Liying Chen, Yanfang Feng, et al.
Environ Int. 2024 Mar;185:108508. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2024.108508. Epub 2024 Feb 16.
Microplastics (MPs), including conventional hard-to-biodegrade petroleum-based and faster biodegradable plant-based ones, impact soil structure and microbiota in turn affecting the biodiversity and functions of terrestrial ecosystems. Herein, we investigated the effects of conventional and biodegradable MPs on aggregate distribution and microbial community composition in microhabitats at the aggregate scale. Two MP types (polyethylene (PE) and polylactic acid (PLA) with increasing size (50, 150, and 300 μm)) were mixed with a silty loam soil (0-20 cm) at a ratio of 0.5 % (w/w) in a rice-wheat rotation system in a greenhouse under 25 °C for one year. The effects on aggregation, bacterial communities and their co-occurrence networks were investigated as a function of MP aggregate size. Conventional and biodegradable MPs generally had similar effects on soil aggregation and bacterial communities. They increased the proportion of microaggregates from 17 % to 32 %, while reducing the macroaggregates from 84 % to 68 %. The aggregate stability decreased from 1.4 mm to 1.0-1.1 mm independently of MP size due to the decline in the binding agents gluing soil particles (e.g., microbial byproducts and proteinaceous substances). MP type and amount strongly affected the bacterial community structure, accounting for 54 % of the variance. Due to less bioavailable organics, bacterial community composition within microaggregates was more sensitive to MPs addition compared to macroaggregates. Co-occurrence network analysis revealed that MPs exacerbated competition among bacteria and increased the complexity of bacterial networks. Such effects were stronger for PE than PLA MPs due to the higher persistence of PE in soils. Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Chloroflexi, Actinobacteria, and Gemmatimonadetes were the keystone taxa in macroaggregates, while Actinobacteria and Chloroflexi were the keystone taxa in microaggregates. Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Chloroflexi were the most sensitive bacteria to MPs addition. Overall, both conventional and biodegradable MPs reduced the portion of large and stable aggregates, altering bacterial community structures and keystone taxa, and consequently, the functions.
114Effects of different microplastics on the physicochemical properties and microbial diversity of rice rhizosphere soilOpenAlex
Sheng Lai, Cunzhong Fan, Ping Yang, et al.
Biodegradable plastics, as alternatives to conventional waste plastics, are increasingly applied across various fields. However, the ecological risks associated with the widespread use of biodegradable plastics remain unclear. Additionally, biodegradable plastics tend to age in the environment, leading to changes in their physicochemical properties. The ecological risks brought by the aging of microplastics have also been scarcely studied. In this study, we selected conventional microplastics (PE-MPs), biodegradable microplastics (PLA-MPs), and aged biodegradable microplastics (aging-PLA-MPs) to explore their effects on the rhizosphere soil environment of rice. The results showed that microplastics reduced the soil N and P content, with PE slightly increasing the DOC content, while PLA and aging-PLA significantly increased DOC by 21.13 and 24.04%, respectively. Microplastics also decreased soil enzyme activity, with aging-PLA having a somewhat stimulatory effect on enzyme activity compared to PLA. Furthermore, microplastics reduced the soil bacterial diversity index and altered the community structure of dominant bacterial species, with DOC content and FDA hydrolase being the main factors influencing the soil bacterial community. Bacteria were most sensitive to PLA, and the stability of the bacterial microbial network structure decreased, although aging reduced the negative impact of PLA on the bacterial community. This study contributes to our understanding of the ecological risks posed by biodegradable plastics and their aging processes on the environment.
115Effects of different microplastic types on soil physicochemical properties, enzyme activities, and bacterial communitiesOpenAlex
Wenjie Guo, Zhiwei Ye, Yanna Zhao, et al.
-N, and available phosphorus. The addition of MPs had a significant influence on the activities of soil β-glucosidase, acid phosphatase, urease, and fluorescein diacetate hydrolase, with effects varying with MP type. Results of 16S rRNA gene high throughput sequencing showed that MP exposure had little effect on soil microbial alpha diversity, but that PHA contamination significantly reduced ACE, Chao1, and Shannon index values. MP contamination also altered soil microbial community composition. In particular, the relative abundance of Firmicutes increased significantly while the relative abundance of Actinobacteriota, Proteobacteria (especially the nitrogen-fixing rhizobia), and Acidobacteriota decreased following exposure to PHA. Redundancy analysis showed that acid phosphatase and pH were the two main environmental factors affecting bacterial community structure at the phylum and order levels. Furthermore, Tax4Fun2 analysis found that MP treatment disrupted fundamental bacterial metabolic pathways. Our findings indicate that different types of MPs can affect soil fertility, bacterial community structure, and function in various ways, and highlight that biodegradable MPs may alter soil bacterial communities more than conventional MPs.
116Interactions of microplastics and main pollutants and environmental behavior in soils.PubMed
Huirong Yang, Han Dong, Yurou Huang, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2022 May 15;821:153511. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153511. Epub 2022 Jan 29.
Microplastics (MPs) are emerging global contaminants, attracting more and more attention because of their difficulty in degradation, extensive and persistent pollution. In freshwater environment, especially in the ocean, they have become a global, public and even political research hotspot. However, the distribution, fate and ecological hazards of MPs in agricultural land and other soils have not been explored fully. Although the occurrence of MPs in different habitats has been reviewed at home and abroad, little attention has been paid to its environmental behavior, ecotoxicology and interaction with biological and chemical pollutants in soil. This review summaries the research progress on the source, accumulation, degradation and migration of MPs in soil, the potential risks of ecological environment and food chain. In order to provide theoretical basis and practical suggestions for related research and regulatory countermeasures, the detection and treatment methods and mechanism of microplastics in soil need to be further explored.
117Single and joint toxicity of polymethyl methacrylate microplastics and As (V) on rapeseed (Brassia campestris L.).PubMed
Ruyin Dong, Rongle Liu, Yingming Xu, et al.
Chemosphere. 2022 Mar;291(Pt 3):133066. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.133066. Epub 2021 Nov 30.
Most microplastics and arsenic (As) have been released into farmland via industrial and agricultural activities, posing a potential threat to crop growth and food safety. Thus far, few studies have focused on the phytoxicity of microplastics and As to leafy vegetable. In this study, we evaluated the single and combined toxicological effects of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) and As(V) on rapeseed (Brassia campestris L.). Single treatments of two sizes of PMMA particles, namely PMMA nano-plastics (PMMANPs) and PMMA micro-plastics (PMMAMPs) and As(V) significantly (P < 0.05) inhibited the germination index (GI) of rapeseed. The IC indicates that PMMANPs were more toxic than PMMAMPs. Combine-pollution experiments demonstrated that the GI, biomass, root length, and sprout length of the rapeseed under the combined treatment were lower than those subjected to As(V) or PMMANPs single treatment. Analysis of variance showed that the interaction effects of PMMANPs and As(V) for GI and root length were significant, and there was synergistic interaction between PMMANPs and As(V) on rapeseed germination. PMMANPs promoted the accumulation of As in sprouts under high As(V) concentrations (40 and 60 mg/L). The activities of lipase in rapeseed generally increased under single and combined treatments of As(V) and PMMANPs, and while α-amylase activities first increased and then decreased with the increase of PMMANPs. It appears that the combined stress of microplastics and As(V) exhibited synergistic interaction on the growth of rapeseed.
118Systematical review of interactions between microplastics and microorganisms in the soil environment.PubMed
Xuyuan Zhang, Yong Li, Dan Ouyang, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2021 Sep 15;418:126288. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126288. Epub 2021 Jun 1.
Terrestrial ecosystems are widely contaminated by microplastics due to extensive usage and poor handling of plastic materials, but the subsequent fate and remediate strategy of these pollutants are far from fully understood. In soil environments, microplastics pose a potential threat to the survival, growth, and reproduction of soil microbiota that in turn threaten the biodiversity, function, and services of terrestrial ecosystems. Meanwhile, microorganisms are sensitive to microplastics due to the adaptability to changes in substrates and soil properties. Through the metabolic and mineralization processes, microorganisms are also crucial participator to the plastic biodegradation. In this review, we present current knowledges and research results of interactions between microplastics and microorganisms (both fungi and bacteria) in soil environments and mainly discuss the following: (1) effects of microplastics on microbial habitats via changes in soil physical, chemical, and biological properties; (2) effects of microplastics on soil microbial communities and functions; and (3) soil microbial-mediated plastic degradation with the likely mechanisms and potential remediation strategies. We aim to analyze the mechanisms driving these interactions and subsequent ecological effects, propose future directives for the study of microplastic in soils, and provide valuable information on the plastic bioremediation in contaminated soils.
119Microplastics altered soil microbiome and nitrogen cycling: The role of phthalate plasticizer.PubMed
Fengxiao Zhu, Yuanyuan Yan, Evelyn Doyle, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2022 Apr 5;427:127944. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127944. Epub 2021 Nov 29.
Microplastics are emerging contaminants that are increasingly detected in soil environment, but their impact on soil microbiota and related biogeochemical processes remains poorly understood. In particular, the mechanisms involved (e.g., the role of chemical additives) are still elusive. In this study, we found that plasticizer-containing polyvinyl chloride (PVC) microplastics at 0.5% (w/w) significantly increased soil NH-N content and decreased NO-N content by up to 91%, and shaped soil microbiota into a microbial system with more nitrogen-fixing microorganisms (as indicated by nifDHK gene abundance), urea decomposers (ureABC genes and urease activity) and nitrate reducers (nasA, NR, NIT-6 and napAB genes), and less nitrifiers (amoC gene and potential nitrification rate). Exposure to plasticizer alone had a similar effect on soil nitrogen parameters but microplastics of pure PVC polymer (either granule or film) had little effect over 60 days, indicating that phthalate plasticizer released from microplastics was the main driver of effects observed. Furthermore, a direct link between phthalate plasticizer, microbial taxonomic changes and altered nitrogen metabolism was established by the isolation of phthalate-degrading bacteria involved in nitrogen cycling. This study highlights the importance of chemical additives in determining the interplay of microplastics with microbes and nutrient cycling, which needs to be considered in future studies.
120Microplastics reduce soil microbial network complexity and ecological deterministic selection.PubMed
Jia Shi, Yuanze Sun, Xiang Wang, et al.
Environ Microbiol. 2022 Apr;24(4):2157-2169. doi: 10.1111/1462-2920.15955. Epub 2022 Mar 10.
Microplastics have been proposed as emerging threats for terrestrial systems as they may potentially alter the physicochemical/biophysical soil environments. Due to the variety of properties of microplastics and soils, the microplastic-induced effects in soil ecosystems are greatly manifold. Here, we studied effects of three polymer microplastics (polyamide-6, polyethylene, and polyethylene terephthalate) on soil properties with four different soil types. The success patterns, interaction relationships, and assembly processes of soil bacterial communities were also studied. Microplastics have the potential to promote CO emissions and enhance the soil humification. Even though microplastics did not significantly alter the diversity and composition of the soil microbial community, the application of microplastics decreased the network complexity and stability, including network size, connectivity, and the number of module and keystone species. The bacterial community assembly was governed by deterministic selection (77.3%-90.9%) in all treatments, while microplastics increased the contribution of stochastic processes from 9.1% in control to 13.6%-22.7%. The neutral model results also indicated most of the bacterial taxa were present in the predicted neutral region (approximately 98%), suggesting the importance of stochastic processes. These findings provided a fundamental insight in understanding the effects of microplastics on soil ecosystems.
121The increasing age of facility agriculture significantly enriched microplastics and affected soil bacterial communities.PubMed
Li Xu, Dandan Xu, Kang Wang, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2025 Sep 5;495:138865. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.138865. Epub 2025 Jun 7.
Microplastic (MP) pollution in facility agriculture is increasingly concerning, yet its interaction with soil properties and microbial communities remains unclear. This study analyzed soil samples from 10 agricultural facility bases in Beijing, revealing an average MP abundance of 1760 ± 868.02 items/kg. MP levels showed a positive correlation with facility age, with fragments (47.3 %), films (26.2 %), and fibres (21.6 %) as the dominant forms, primarily composed of polypropylene (33.5 %) and polyethylene (17.3 %). Both facility age and MPs significantly increased the abundance of the phylum Acidobacteriota and the genus Hyphomicrobium. Further analysis indicated that soil pH, organic matter content, and facility age exerted stronger effects on soil microbial communities than MPs, shaping their ecological functions through shifts in microbial composition. Functional analysis of microbial communities using the Functional Annotation of Prokaryotic Taxa (FAPROTAX) tool revealed that facility age significantly influenced microbial functions, negatively impacting carbon cycling while enhancing nitrogen cycling, whereas MP abundance showed relatively minor effects. These findings provide important insights into soil MP pollution and its implications for soil ecosystem health and sustainable agricultural development.
122Combined Inhibitory Effect of Canada Goldenrod Invasion and Soil Microplastics on Rice Growth.PubMed
Xiaoxun Zhao, Hongliang Xie, Xin Zhao, et al.
Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022 Sep 21;19(19):11947. doi: 10.3390/ijerph191911947.
Alien plant invasion and residual soil microplastics (MPs) are growing threats to agricultural crop production. This study determined the adverse effects of Canadian goldenrod ( L.) invasion and residual soil MPs on rice growth and development. The biomass, phenological indices, photosynthetic parameters, and antioxidant enzyme activities of rice were measured on the 50th and 80th day of post-plantation. Biomass and phenotypic results indicated the more harmful effects of the combination of invasion and residual soil MPs compared to invasion or residual soil MPs effects alone. Moreover, the interaction effect of invasion and residual soil MPs markedly reduced the ascorbate peroxidase and catalase belowground, while they increased in the aboveground parts of the rice. However, the invasion and residual soil MPs interactive treatments lowered the superoxide dismutase concentrations in the belowground parts of the rice plants while elevating the peroxidase and reactive oxygen species concentrations in both the belowground and aboveground parts compared to the other treatments. Among all treatments, invasion alone had the most negligible negative impact on rice biomass and growth indices. Our study suggests that soil MPs could negatively affect crop production with invasive alien plants, and the combined effects were more harmful than either of the single factors. Our findings will lay the groundwork for analyzing the impacts of invasive alien plants on rice crops.
123Concurrence of microplastics and heat waves reduces rice yields and disturbs the agroecosystem nitrogen cycle.PubMed
Shuqing Guo, Li Mu, Shan Sun, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2023 Jun 15;452:131340. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131340. Epub 2023 Apr 1.
Microplastic pollution and heat waves, as damaging aspects of human activities, have been found to affect crop production and nitrogen (N) cycling in agroecosystems. However, the impacts of the combination of heat waves and microplastics on crop production and quality have not been analyzed. We found that heat waves or microplastics alone had slight effects on rice physiological parameters and soil microbial communities. However, under heat wave conditions, the typical low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and polylactic acid (PLA) microplastics decreased the rice yields by 32.1% and 32.9%, decreased the grain protein level by 4.5% and 2.8%, and decreased the lysine level by 91.1% and 63.6%, respectively. In the presence of heat waves, microplastics increased the allocation and assimilation of N in roots and stems but decreased those in leaves, which resulted in a reduction in photosynthesis. In soil, the concurrence of microplastics and heat waves induced the leaching of microplastics, which resulted in decreased microbial N functionality and disturbed N metabolism. In summary, heat waves amplified the disturbance induced by microplastics on the agroecosystem N cycle and therefore exacerbated the decreases in rice yield and nutrients induced by microplastics, which indicates that the environmental and food risks of microplastics deserve to be reconsidered.
125Effect of microplastics and arsenic on nutrients and microorganisms in rice rhizosphere soil.PubMed
Youming Dong, Minling Gao, Weiwen Qiu, et al.
Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2021 Mar 15;211:111899. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.111899. Epub 2021 Jan 13.
The presence of microplastics and arsenic in soil can endanger crop growth; therefore, their effects on the properties of rhizosphere soil should be evaluated. Large (10-100 µm) and small (0.1-1 µm) polystyrene (PSMP) and polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) particles were added to soil with different arsenic concentrations (1.4, 24.7, and 86.3 mg kg) to investigate the combined effect of microplastics and arsenic pollution on rice rhizosphere soil. After the addition of PSMP and PTFE, pH, arsenic (V) and arsenic (III) in the soil were observed to decrease. The interaction of arsenic with PSMP and PTFE resulted in this phenomenon, leading to a decrease of arsenic bioavailability in the soil. PSMP, PTFE, and arsenic reduced the abundance of Proteobacteria, increased the abundance of Chloroflexi and Acidobacteria, and inhibited soil urease, acid phosphatase, protease, dehydrogenase, and peroxidase activity via affecting the tertiary structure of the enzyme. PSMP, PTFE, and arsenic also reduced the available nitrogen and phosphorus content in the soil. Arsenic increased the soil organic matter content, whereas PSMP and PTFE reduced the organic matter content. Furthermore, microplastics inhibited the effects of arsenic on the microbial and chemical properties of the rhizosphere soil. This study revealed the effects of microplastic and arsenic pollution on rice rhizosphere microorganisms and nutrients, and elucidated the mechanism by which these pollutants retard crop growth in the designed growth medium.
126Micro- and nanoplastics: A new cardiovascular risk factor?PubMed
Xiaoqi Zhu, Chuanxuan Wang, Xiaoyu Duan, et al.
Environ Int. 2023 Jan;171:107662. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2022.107662. Epub 2022 Nov 26.
Exposure to micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) is inevitable due to their omnipresence in the environment. A growing body of studies has advanced our understanding of the potential toxicity of MNPs but knowledge gaps still exist regarding the adverse effects of MNPs on the cardiovascular system and underlying mechanisms, particularly in humans. Here, we reviewed up-to-date data published in the past 10 years on MNP-driven cardiovascular toxicity and mechanisms. Forty-six articles concerning ADME (absorption, distribution, and aggregation behaviors) and toxicity of MNPs in the circulatory system of animals and human cells were analyzed and summarized. The results showed that MNPs affected cardiac functions and caused toxicity on (micro)vascular sites. Direct cardiac toxicity of MNPs included abnormal heart rate, cardiac function impairment, pericardial edema, and myocardial fibrosis. On (micro)vascular sites, MNPs induced hemolysis, thrombosis, blood coagulation, and vascular endothelial damage. The main mechanisms included oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, pyroptosis, and interaction between MNPs and multiple cellular components. Cardiovascular toxicity was determined by the properties (type, size, surface, and structure) of MNPs, exposure dose and duration, protein presence, the life stage, sex, and species of the tested organisms, as well as the interaction with other environmental contamination. The limited quantitative information on MNPs' ADME and the lack of guidelines for MNP cardiotoxicity testing makes risk assessment on cardiac health impossible. Furthermore, the future directions of cardiovascular research on MNPs are recommended to enable more realistic health risk assessment.
127Microplastics and human health: unveiling the gut microbiome disruption and chronic disease risks.PubMed
Sudipta Sankar Bora, Rahul Gogoi, Madhurjya Ranjan Sharma, et al.
Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2024 Nov 25;14:1492759. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1492759. eCollection 2024.
Microplastics (MPs), defined as plastic particles smaller than 5 mm, are increasingly recognized as environmental contaminants with potential health risks. These emerge as breakdown products of larger plastics and are omnipresent in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial ecosystems. They are primarily composed of polymers such as polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and additives that enhance their performance. MPs also adsorb harmful environmental chemicals like persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals, posing risks to human and environmental health. Human exposure to MPs occurs mainly through ingestion and inhalation, with MPs detected in food products, water, and even the air. MPs have been shown to accumulate in the gastrointestinal tract, disrupting the gut microbiome, and causing dysbiosis-a harmful imbalance between beneficial and harmful bacteria. This disruption has been linked to various health issues, including gastrointestinal disorders, systemic inflammation, and chronic diseases. Furthermore, the gut-brain axis may be affected, with potential neuroinflammatory consequences. As research continues to unravel the health impacts of MP exposure, understanding the mechanisms of accumulation and the broader implications on human health is crucial. This review highlights the effects of MPs on human health, emphasizing their impact on the gut microbiome. We discuss the potential connections between MP exposure and cardiometabolic and inflammatory diseases, and disorders related to the Gut-Brain Axis. By synthesizing the latest research, this work sheds light on the silent yet pervasive threat posed by MPs and underscores the importance of further studies to understand their health impacts fully.
128The potential impact of nano- and microplastics on human health: Understanding human health risks.PubMed
Ewa Winiarska, Marek Jutel, Magdalena Zemelka-Wiacek
Environ Res. 2024 Jun 15;251(Pt 2):118535. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.118535. Epub 2024 Mar 7.
Plastics are used all over the world. Unfortunately, due to limited biodegradation, plastics cause a significant level of environmental pollution. The smallest recognized to date are termed nanoplastics (1 nm [nm] up to 1 μm [μm]) and microplastics (1 μm-5 mm). These nano- and microplastics can enter the human body through the respiratory system via inhalation, the digestive tract via consumption of contaminated food and water, or penetration through the skin via cosmetics and clothes contact. Bioaccumulation of plastics in the human body can potentially lead to a range of health issues, including respiratory disorders like lung cancer, asthma and hypersensitivity pneumonitis, neurological symptoms such as fatigue and dizziness, inflammatory bowel disease and even disturbances in gut microbiota. Most studies to date have confirmed that nano- and microplastics can induce apoptosis in cells and have genotoxic and cytotoxic effects. Understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms of plastics' actions may help extrapolate the risks to humans. The article provides a comprehensive review of articles in databases regarding the impact of nano- and microplastics on human health. The review included retrospective studies and case reports of people exposed to nanoplastics and microplastics. This research highlights the need for further research to fully understand the extent of the impact of plastics on human health.
129Recognition and detection technology for microplastic, its source and health effects.PubMed
Nafeesa Khatoon, Manthar Ali Mallah, Zengli Yu, et al.
Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2024 Feb;31(8):11428-11452. doi: 10.1007/s11356-023-31655-6. Epub 2024 Jan 6.
Microplastic (MP) is ubiquitous in the environment which appeared as an immense intimidation to human and animal health. The plastic fragments significantly polluted the ocean, fresh water, food chain, and other food items. Inadequate maintenance, less knowledge of adverse influence along with inappropriate usage in addition throwing away of plastics items revolves present planet in to plastics planet. The present study aims to focus on the recognition and advance detection technologies for MPs and the adverse effects of micro- and nanoplastics on human health. MPs have rigorous adverse effect on human health that leads to condensed growth rates, lessened reproductive capability, ulcer, scrape, and oxidative nervous anxiety, in addition, also disturb circulatory and respiratory mechanism. The detection of MP particles has also placed emphasis on identification technologies such as scanning electron microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, optical detection, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, thermo-analytical techniques, flow cytometry, holography, and hyperspectral imaging. It suggests that further research should be explored to understand the source, distribution, and health impacts and evaluate numerous detection methodologies for the MPs along with purification techniques.
130Micro- and nanoplastic toxicity in humans: Exposure pathways, cellular effects, and mitigation strategies.PubMed
Faezeh Jahedi, Neamatollah Jaafarzadeh Haghighi Fard
Toxicol Rep. 2025 May 10;14:102043. doi: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.102043. eCollection 2025 Jun.
Microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) are emerging environmental contaminants with increasing scientific evidence suggesting their potential risks to human health. The present review systematically explores the pathways through which these particles enter the human body, the cellular and molecular mechanisms of their toxicity, and current strategies to mitigate their effects. A structured literature review was conducted following PRISMA guidelines, focusing on studies published between 2019 and 2024 across major scientific databases. MNPs primarily enter the human system via ingestion, inhalation, and dermal exposure. Once internalized, they can accumulate in various organs and trigger oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, and genotoxic effects. These toxic responses have been linked to chronic conditions such as metabolic disorders (e.g., diabetes, obesity), immune dysfunction, and neurodegenerative diseases. Furthermore, this review highlights emerging attenuation strategies, including advanced filtration technologies, bioremediation approaches, and bioactive compounds such as melatonin, astaxanthin, and probiotics. By identifying exposure pathways, toxic effects, and current research gaps, this review provides a comprehensive foundation for developing effective interventions to reduce MNP-related health risks and inform future toxicological studies.
131An overview of research on the association between microplastics and central nervous system disorders.PubMed
Xiaohua Shi, Yukai Wang, Lei Xu
Front Public Health. 2025 Oct 9;13:1629181. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2025.1629181. eCollection 2025.
As plastic pollution continues to escalate, microplastics have emerged as a major global contaminant, raising significant concerns about their potential effects on human health. In recent years, the widespread presence of microplastics has been linked to various health problems, particularly their impact on central nervous system (CNS) disorders, which are increasingly becoming a focus of scientific research. Current evidence indicates that microplastics can enter the human body through inhalation, ingestion, and skin absorption. Once they penetrate the body, these particles can accumulate in neural tissues, leading to detrimental changes such as inflammation, oxidative stress, and neuronal damage. This review aims to systematically explore the correlation between microplastic exposure and central nervous system disorders, analyze and summarize the underlying mechanisms, and provide a scientific basis for public health risk assessment and environmental policy formulation.
132Metabolomics Reveal Nanoplastic-Induced Mitochondrial Damage in Human Liver and Lung Cells.PubMed
Siyi Lin, Hongna Zhang, Chen Wang, et al.
Environ Sci Technol. 2022 Sep 6;56(17):12483-12493. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.2c03980. Epub 2022 Aug 25.
Plastic debris in the global biosphere is an increasing concern, and nanoplastic (NPs) toxicity in humans is far from being understood. Studies have indicated that NPs can affect mitochondria, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. The liver and lungs have important metabolic functions and are vulnerable to NP exposure. In this study, we investigated the effects of 80 nm NPs on mitochondrial functions and metabolic pathways in normal human hepatic (L02) cells and lung (BEAS-2B) cells. NP exposure did not induce mass cell death; however, transmission electron microscopy analysis showed that the NPs could enter the cells and cause mitochondrial damage, as evidenced by overproduction of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species, alterations in the mitochondrial membrane potential, and suppression of mitochondrial respiration. These alterations were observed at NP concentrations as low as 0.0125 mg/mL, which might be comparable to the environmental levels. Nontarget metabolomics confirmed that the most significantly impacted processes were mitochondrial-related. The metabolic function of L02 cells was more vulnerable to NP exposure than that of BEAS-2B cells, especially at low NP concentrations. This study identifies NP-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and metabolic toxicity pathways in target human cells, providing insight into the possibility of adverse outcomes in human health.
133Oxidized/unmodified-polyethylene microplastics neurotoxicity in mice: Perspective from microbiota-gut-brain axis.PubMed
Ji Wang, Ying Yang, Yongpeng Shi, et al.
Environ Int. 2024 Mar;185:108523. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2024.108523. Epub 2024 Mar 7.
Microplastics (MPs) are inevitably oxidized in the environment, and their potential toxicity to organisms has attracted wide attention. However, the neurotoxicity and mechanism of oxidized polyethylene (Ox-PE) MPs to organisms remain unclear. Herein, we prepared oxidized low-density polyethylene (Ox-LDPE) and established a model of MPs exposure by continuously orally gavage of C57BL/6 J mice with LDPE-MPs/Ox-LDPE-MPs for 28 days with or without oral administration of Lactobacillus plantarum DP189 and galactooligosaccharides (DP189&GOS). The experimental results indicated that LDPE-MPs or Ox-LDPE-MPs caused several adverse effects in mice, mainly manifested by behavioral changes, disruption of the intestinal and blood-brain barrier (BBB), and simultaneous oxidative stress, inflammatory reactions, and pathological damage in the brain and intestines. Brain transcriptomic analysis revealed that the cholinergic synaptic signaling pathways, which affect cognitive function, were significantly disrupted after exposure to LDPE-MPs or Ox-LDPE-MPs. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction and Western Blotting results further demonstrated that the critical genes (Slc5a7, Chat and Slc18a3) and proteins (Chat and Slc18a3) in the cholinergic synaptic signaling pathway were significantly down-regulated after exposure to LDPE-MPs or Ox-LDPE-MPs. These alterations lead to reduced acetylcholine concentration, which causes cognitive dysfunction in mice. Importantly, the DP189&GOS interventions effectively mitigated the MPs-induced cognitive dysfunction and intestinal microbiota alteration, improved intestinal and BBB integrity, attenuated the oxidative stress and inflammatory response, and also saw a rebound in the release of acetylcholine. These results indicated that LDPE-MPs and Ox-LDPE-MPs exert neurotoxic effects on mice by inducing oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, and dysregulation of cholinergic signaling pathways in the mouse brain. That probiotic supplementation is effective in attenuating MPs-induced neurotoxicity in mice. Overall, this study reveals the potential mechanisms of neurotoxicity of LDPE-MPs and Ox-LDPE-MPs on mice and their improvement measures, necessary to assess the potential risks of plastic contaminants to human health.
134Systemic crosstalk between liver and brain is associated with microplastic-induced neurobehavioral toxicity in zebrafish.PubMed
Zhimin Xu, Zheng Lin, Yifan Wang, et al.
Environ Pollut. 2026 Jun 1;398:128082. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2026.128082. Epub 2026 Apr 10.
Microplastics (MPs) are widespread environmental contaminants that have entered the human food chain, whose systemic health effects remain largely unknown. Using zebrafish as a vertebrate model, we investigated the mechanistic impacts of MPs on the liver-brain axis. After 18 days of exposure, zebrafish exhibited inhibited growth and neurobehavioral deficits, including reduced feeding, hyperactivity, spatial disorientation, and impaired sensorimotor responses. MPs accumulated in the brain, leading to structural damage, oxidative stress, and neurotransmitter depletion. Molecular docking revealed that MP monomers competitively bound to acetylcholinesterase (AChE), disrupting cholinergic signaling and inducing neuroexcitation. Simultaneously, MPs triggered hepatic inflammation, enzyme dysfunction, and lipid metabolic disturbances. Biochemical analysis showed elevated inflammatory markers (IL-1β, TNF-α, HSP90), compromised antioxidant defenses, increased transaminase leakage, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Untargeted metabolomics revealed hepatic metabolic reprogramming, with disrupted glycolysis, lipid turnover, and redox homeostasis. Pathway analysis implicated liver injury as a driver of neurotoxicity, potentially via altered metabolites and cytokines crossing the blood-brain barrier to influence neuroinflammatory and neuroendocrine responses. These findings highlight a mechanistic link between hepatic dysfunction and neural impairment, suggesting hepatic metabolic dysfunction as a potential systemic contributor to MP-induced neurotoxicity, and offering novel insights into the potential human health risks of MP exposure.
135Effect of microplastics and nanoplastics in gastrointestinal tract on gut health: A systematic review.PubMed
Y H Tan, N Mokhtar, R A Raja Ali, et al.
Malays J Pathol. 2025 Aug;47(2):221-231.
INTRODUCTION: Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) are pervasive environmental contaminants with growing concerns about their ingestion through food and water sources. Although animal studies suggest adverse health effects, direct mechanistic evidence in human gastrointestinal (GI) systems remains limited. In vitro models using human GI cell lines and organoids offer a physiologically relevant platform for investigating the effects of MPs and NPs on human health. However, existing findings are fragmented and lack systematic synthesis. This systematic review aims to consolidate and critically analyse current evidence on the biological effects of MPs and NPs in human GI in vitro studies. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Articles were selected from a previously conducted systematic search across Scopus and PubMed databases. Studies excluded from the prior review but relevant to MPs and NPs effects on human GI cells were re-screened under newly defined inclusion and exclusion criteria. RESULTS: A total of 30 studies were included. MPs and NPs were shown to induce size- and concentration-dependent biological effects, including increased cellular uptake, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation, and apoptosis. Smaller particles consistently exhibited greater cellular internalisation and biological effects. These effects mainly occurred at high concentrations. Under chronic exposure, most studies reported minimal or no significant effects except for cell viability. CONCLUSION: This review provides the first comprehensive synthesis of in vitro evidence on the biological effects of MPs and NPs in human GI models. It advances mechanistic understanding and outlines future directions to strengthen health risk assessment, inform strategies for disease prevention, and guide public health policies addressing microplastic exposure.
136Association between microplastics exposure and gut microbiota and metabolites in older adults: A cross-sectional study.PubMed
Xiaojun Ma, Jinxin Zhang, Yali Wang, et al.
Environ Res. 2025 Dec 1;286(Pt 1):122735. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2025.122735. Epub 2025 Sep 2.
BACKGROUND: Microplastics (MPs) pollution is a global issue. Due to long-term accumulation and physiological decline, older adults may be more susceptible to its effects. This study aims to evaluate the associations between MPs and the gut microbiota and metabolites in older adults. METHOD: During the 2024 follow-up of the Ningxia Older Mental Health Cohort, 45 fecal samples were collected. MP detection was performed using laser direct infrared imaging spectrometer (LDIR), and principal coordinates analysis (PCoA) was used to assess microbial community similarity. Wilcoxon tests were used for intergroup comparisons of microbial dysbiosis index (MDI), gut microbiome health index (GMHI), and microbial abundance. Differential metabolites were screened using the orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) model and univariate analysis. The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database was used for pathway annotation. Bland-Altman analysis evaluated the consistency between fecal MP detection counts and the plastic exposure score (PES) from questionnaires. RESULTS: The average count of MPs in feces was 70.10 particles/g, primarily consisting of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), butadiene rubber (BR), and polyethylene (PE). MP exposure may affect the beta diversity, MDI, and GMHI in older adults. Furthermore, changes in the abundance of certain species in the gut microbiota, such as Klebsiella and Escherichia-Shigella, and levels of metabolites, such as taurine and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), were associated with MP exposure. A total of 30 KEGG pathways were significantly enriched, with the primary pathways including taurine and hypotaurine metabolism, and ligand-receptor interaction. MP detection counts show good consistency with PES. CONCLUSION: MP exposure is associated with changes in the characteristics of gut microbiota, microbial abundance, and metabolite levels. PES may serve as a suitable alternative tool for assessing plastic exposure in large populations.
137The reproductive and transgenerational toxicity of microplastics and nanoplastics: A threat to mammalian fertility in both sexes.PubMed
Yuchong He, Ruocheng Yin
J Appl Toxicol. 2024 Jan;44(1):66-85. doi: 10.1002/jat.4510. Epub 2023 Jun 29.
Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) are extensively distributed in the environment. However, a comprehensive review and in-depth discussion on the effects of MPs and NPs to reproductive capacity and transgenerational toxicity on mammals, especially on humans, is lacked. It is suggested that microplastics and nanoplastics could accumulate in mammalian reproductive organs and exert toxic effects on the reproductive system for both sexes. For males, the damage of microplastics consists of abnormal testicular and sperm structure, decreased sperm vitality, and endocrine disruption, which were caused by oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis of testicular cells, autophagy, abnormal cytoskeleton, and abnormal hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis. For females, the damage of microplastics includes abnormal ovary and uterus structure and endocrine disruption, which were caused by oxidative stress, inflammation, granulosa cell apoptosis, hypothalamic-pituitary-ovary axis abnormalities, and tissue fibrosis. For transgenerational toxicity, premature mortality existed in the rodent offspring after maternal exposure to microplastics. Among the surviving offspring, metabolic disorders, reproductive dysfunction, immune, neurodevelopmental, and cognitive disorders were detected, and these events directly correlated with transgenerational translocation of MPs and NPs. Studies on human-derived cells or organoids demonstrated that transgenerational toxicity studies for both sexes are yet in the phase of exploring suitable experimental models, and more detailed research on the threat of MPs and NPs to human fertility is still urgently needed. Further studies will help assess the MPs and NPs threat to public fertility and reproductive health risks.
138Single inhalation exposure to polyamide micro and nanoplastic particles impairs vascular dilation without generating pulmonary inflammation in virgin female Sprague Dawley rats.PubMed
Chelsea M Cary, Talia N Seymore, Dilpreet Singh, et al.
Part Fibre Toxicol. 2023 Apr 23;20(1):16. doi: 10.1186/s12989-023-00525-x.
BACKGROUND: Exposure to micro- and nanoplastic particles (MNPs) in humans is being identified in both the indoor and outdoor environment. Detection of these materials in the air has made inhalation exposure to MNPs a major cause for concern. One type of plastic polymer found in indoor and outdoor settings is polyamide, often referred to as nylon. Inhalation of combustion-derived, metallic, and carbonaceous aerosols generate pulmonary inflammation, cardiovascular dysfunction, and systemic inflammation. Additionally, due to the additives present in plastics, MNPs may act as endocrine disruptors. Currently there is limited knowledge on potential health effects caused by polyamide or general MNP inhalation. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to assess the toxicological consequences of a single inhalation exposure of female rats to polyamide MNP during estrus by means of aerosolization of MNP. METHODS: Bulk polyamide powder (i.e., nylon) served as a representative MNP. Polyamide aerosolization was characterized using particle sizers, cascade impactors, and aerosol samplers. Multiple-Path Particle Dosimetry (MPPD) modeling was used to evaluate pulmonary deposition of MNPs. Pulmonary inflammation was assessed by bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cell content and H&E-stained tissue sections. Mean arterial pressure (MAP), wire myography of the aorta and uterine artery, and pressure myography of the radial artery was used to assess cardiovascular function. Systemic inflammation and endocrine disruption were quantified by measurement of proinflammatory cytokines and reproductive hormones. RESULTS: Our aerosolization exposure platform was found to generate particles within the micro- and nano-size ranges (thereby constituting MNPs). Inhaled particles were predicted to deposit in all regions of the lung; no overt pulmonary inflammation was observed. Conversely, increased blood pressure and impaired dilation in the uterine vasculature was noted while aortic vascular reactivity was unaffected. Inhalation of MNPs resulted in systemic inflammation as measured by increased plasma levels of IL-6. Decreased levels of 17β-estradiol were also observed suggesting that MNPs have endocrine disrupting activity. CONCLUSIONS: These data demonstrate aerosolization of MNPs in our inhalation exposure platform. Inhaled MNP aerosols were found to alter inflammatory, cardiovascular, and endocrine activity. These novel findings will contribute to a better understanding of inhaled plastic particle toxicity.
139Inhalation exposure to polystyrene nanoplastics induces chronic obstructive pulmonary disease-like lung injury in mice through multi-dimensional assessment.PubMed
Sheng Yang, Tianyi Zhang, Yiling Ge, et al.
Environ Pollut. 2024 Apr 15;347:123633. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123633. Epub 2024 Feb 27.
Nanoplastics are widely distributed in indoor and outdoor air and can be easily inhaled into human lungs. However, limited studies have investigated the impact of nanoplastics on inhalation toxicities, especially on the initiation and progression of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). To fill the gap, the present study used oronasal aspiration to develop mice models. Mice were exposed to polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) at three concentrations, as well as the corresponding controls, for acute, subacute, and subchronic exposure. As a result, PS-NPs could accumulate in exposed mice lungs and influence lung organ coefficient. Besides, PS-NPs induced local and systemic oxidative stress, inflammation, and protease-antiprotease imbalance, resulting in decreased respiratory function and COPD-like lesions. Meanwhile, PS-NPs could trigger the subcellular mechanism to promote COPD development by causing mitochondrial dysfunctions and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Mechanistically, ferroptosis played an important role in the COPD-like lung injury induced by PS-NPs. In summary, the present study comprehensively and systematically indicates that PS-NPs can damage human respiratory health and increase the risk for COPD.
140Lifelong exposure to polystyrene-nanoplastics induces an attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder-like phenotype and impairs brain aging in mice.PubMed
Anaïs N Vignon, Gaëlle Dudon, Giulia Oliva, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2025 Aug 15;494:138640. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.138640. Epub 2025 May 16.
The accumulation of plastic waste in the environment, breaking down into micro- and nanoplastics, poses significant threats to ecosystem and human health. Plastic particles have been detected in human blood, urine, and placental tissue, indicating widespread exposure. While their long-term health impacts remain unclear, developing brains, especially in fetuses and children, may be vulnerable, potentially resulting in behavioral changes or neurodevelopmental disorders. This study explores the effects of chronic exposure to 23-nm polystyrene nanoplastics at 10 µg/day/kg in wild-type mice across life stages, using exposure levels reflective of human reality. Maternal exposure disrupted critical developmental milestones in pups. In adulthood, exposed mice exhibited Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)-like traits, including hyperactivity, increased risk-taking behaviors, and impaired motor learning and executive functions. In aging mice, exposure was associated with a lower epileptic threshold, with developing seizures. These behavioral changes were linked to altered gene and synaptic protein expression associated with ADHD and epilepsy. At the cellular level, lifelong nanoplastic exposure caused lysosomal dysfunctions and increased lipofuscin accumulation, indicative of accelerated brain aging. These findings align with the growing prevalence of ADHD and epilepsy in humans, particularly children and the elderly, emphasizing the urgent need to address plastic pollution and its health implications.
141Association between microplastics exposure and depressive symptoms in college students.PubMed
Jing Luo, Song Lin
Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2025 Apr 15;295:118142. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2025.118142. Epub 2025 Apr 3.
BACKGROUND: Microplastics (MP) are pervasive environmental pollutants that have raised concerns regarding their potential health effects. However, limited studies have investigated the relationship between MP exposure and depression, particularly in college students. Our study aims to examine the association between MP exposure and depressive symptoms in college students. METHODS: A total of 1420 college students from Jiangsu College of Nursing, China, were included in this cross-sectional study. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Patient Health Questionnaire-2 (PHQ-2), and MP exposure was estimated based on daily airborne MP concentration and drinking-water MP levels. Multivariate logistic regression models were used to estimate the associations between MP exposure and depressive symptoms. RESULTS: The prevalence of depressive symptoms among college students was 61.8 %. The median (interquartile range) of total MP exposure was 17403.7 (14174.8-20995.9) particles/day. Airborne MP exposure exhibited positive associations with depressive symptoms, while no significant association was found between drinking-water MP exposure and depressive symptoms. Compared with participants in the lowest quartile of MP exposure, those in the highest quartile of total MP exposure had 38 % higher odds of experiencing depressive symptoms (odds ratio [OR] = 1.38, 95 % CI: 1.21-1.57). When treated as a continuous variable, each 1000-particle increase in total MP exposure was associated with a 7.0 % increase in the odds of depressive symptoms (OR = 1.07, 95 % CI: 1.04-1.10). Stratified analyses indicated that the association between MP exposure and depressive symptoms was stronger among male students and freshmen. CONCLUSION: This study suggests MP exposure is a contributing factor for depressive symptoms in college students.
142Micro-nanoplastics and cardiovascular diseases: evidence and perspectives.PubMed
Francesco Prattichizzo, Antonio Ceriello, Valeria Pellegrini, et al.
Eur Heart J. 2024 Oct 7;45(38):4099-4110. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehae552.
Emerging evidence indicates that chemical exposures in the environment are overlooked drivers of cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Recent evidence suggests that micro- and nanoplastic (MNP) particles derived largely from the chemical or mechanical degradation of plastics might represent a novel CVD risk factor. Experimental data in preclinical models suggest that MNPs can foster oxidative stress, platelet aggregation, cell senescence, and inflammatory responses in endothelial and immune cells while promoting a range of cardiovascular and metabolic alterations that can lead to disease and premature death. In humans, MNPs derived from various plastics, including polyethylene and polyvinylchloride, have been detected in atherosclerotic plaques and other cardiovascular tissues, including pericardia, epicardial adipose tissues, pericardial adipose tissues, myocardia, and left atrial appendages. MNPs have measurable levels within thrombi and seem to accumulate preferentially within areas of vascular lesions. Their presence within carotid plaques is associated with subsequent increased incidence of cardiovascular events. To further investigate the possible causal role of MNPs in CVD, future studies should focus on large, prospective cohorts assessing the exposure of individuals to plastic-related pollution, the possible routes of absorption, the existence of a putative safety limit, the correspondence between exposure and accumulation in tissues, the timing between accumulation and CVD development, and the pathophysiological mechanisms instigated by pertinent concentrations of MNPs. Data from such studies would allow the design of preventive, or even therapeutic, strategies. Meanwhile, existing evidence suggests that reducing plastic production and use will produce benefits for the environment and for human health. This goal could be achieved through the UN Global Plastics Treaty that is currently in negotiation.
143Environmental toxicants and nephrotoxicity: Implications on mechanisms and therapeutic strategies.PubMed
Rachna Yadav, Dinesh Kumar, Jiten Singh, et al.
Toxicology. 2024 May;504:153784. doi: 10.1016/j.tox.2024.153784. Epub 2024 Mar 20.
Kidneys are one of the most important organs in the human body. In addition to filtering 200 liters of fluid every 24 hours, the kidney also regulates acid-base balance, maintains electrolyte balance, and removes waste and toxicants from the body. Nephrotoxicity is the term used to describe the deterioration of kidney function caused by the harmful effects of medications and various types of environmental toxicants. Exposure to environmental toxicants is an inevitable side effect in the world's increasing industrialization and even more prevalent in underdeveloped nations. Growing data over the past few years has illuminated the probable connection between environmental toxicants and nephrotoxicity. Phthalates, microplastics, acrylamide and bisphenol A are environmental toxicants of particular concern, which are known to have nephrotoxic effects. Such toxicants may accumulate in the kidneys of humans after being consumed, inhaled, or come into contact with the skin. They can enter cells through endocytosis and accumulate in the cytoplasm. Small-sized nephrotoxicants can cause a variety of ailments including inflammation with increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, autophagy, and apoptosis. This study uncovers the potential for new insights concerning the relationship between various environmental toxicants and kidney health. The objectives of this review is to establish information gaps, assess and identify the toxicity mechanisms of different nephrotoxicants, identify innovative pharmacological therapies that demonstrate promising therapeutic benefits/ relevance, and discuss the predictions for the future based on the analysis of the literature.
144Invisible but Insidious Effects of Microplastics.PubMed
Natalia A Stefanova, Yulia S Sotnikova, Aleksandra E Osechkova, et al.
Molecules. 2024 Dec 6;29(23):5776. doi: 10.3390/molecules29235776.
Increasing evidence on the adverse health impacts of microplastics (MPs) is available, but their associated risks to the well-being of humans and long-term impacts are poorly understood. An indicator of the remote effects of MPs may be their influence on the rate of aging. To assess the effects of MPs on the aging process, we used accelerated senescence OXYS rats that develop a complex of geriatric diseases. We prepared the polyethylene terephthalate MPs (2-6 microns in size) and in OXYS and Wistar (maternal strain) rats assessed the influence of chronic administration of MPs (10 or 100 mg/kg per day from age 1.5 to 3.5 months,) on the hematological and biochemical blood parameters, spatial learning, and memory. In addition, the effects of MPs on the development of cataracts and retinopathy, similar to age-related macular degeneration (AMD), in OXYS rats were assessed. We found that in the absence of significant changes in standard clinical blood parameters, chronic MP administration negatively affected the cognitive functions of both Wistar rats and OXYS rats. Additionally, a dose of 100 mg/kg MPs contributed to cataract and AMD progression in OXYS rats. Our results suggest that MPs may increase the rate of aging and, in the long term, lifespan.
145Microplastics: Occurrences, treatment methods, regulations and foreseen environmental impacts.PubMed
Nadeem A Khan, Afzal Husain Khan, Eduardo Alberto López-Maldonado, et al.
Environ Res. 2022 Dec;215(Pt 1):114224. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.114224. Epub 2022 Sep 2.
Microplastics are a silent threat that represent a high degree of danger to the environment in its different ecosystems and of course will also have an important impact on the health of living organisms. It is evident the need to have effective treatments for their treatment, however this is not a simple task, this as a result of the behavior of microplastics in wastewater treatment plants due to their different types and nature, their long molecular chain, reactivity against water, size, shape and the functional groups they carry. Wastewater treatment plants are at the circumference of the release of these wastes into the environment. They often act as a source of many contaminations, which makes this problem more complex. Challenges such as detection in the current scenario using the latest analytical techniques impede the correct understanding of the problem. Due to microplastics, treatment plants have operational and process stability problems. This review paper will present the in-depth situation of occurrence of microplastics, their detection, conventional and advanced treatment methods as well as implementation of legislations worldwide in a comprehensive manner. It has been observed that no innovative or new technologies have emerged to treat microplastics. Therefore, in this article, technologies targeting wastewater treatment plants are critically analyzed. This will help to understand their fate, but also to develop state-of-the-art technologies or combinations of them for the selective treatment of microplastics. The pros and cons of the treatment methods adopted and the knowledge gaps in legislation regarding their implementation are also comprehensively analyzed. This critical work will offer the development of new strategies to restrict microplastics.
146Microplastic removal and management strategies for wastewater treatment plants.PubMed
Shams Forruque Ahmed, Nafisa Islam, Nuzaba Tasannum, et al.
Chemosphere. 2024 Jan;347:140648. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140648. Epub 2023 Nov 10.
Discharging microplastics into the environment with treated wastewater is becoming a major concern around the world. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) release microplastics into terrestrial and aquatic habitats, mostly from textile, laundry, and cosmetic industries. Despite extensive research on microplastics in the environment, their removal, and WWTP management strategies, highlighting their environmental effects, little is known about microplastics' fate and behaviour during various treatment processes. Microplastics interact with treatment technologies differently due to their diverse physical and chemical characteristics, resulting in varying removal efficiency. Microplastics removed from WWTPs may accumulate in soil and harm terrestrial ecosystems. Few studies have examined the cost, energy use, and trade-offs of large-scale implementation of modern treatment methods for the removal of microplastics. To safeguard aquatic and terrestrial habitats from microplastics' contamination, focused and efficient management techniques must bridge these knowledge gaps. This review summarizes microplastic detection, collection, removal and management strategies. A compilation of treatment process studies on microplastics' removal efficiency and their destiny and transit paths shows recent improvement. Bioremediation, membrane bioreactor (MBR), electrocoagulation, sol-gel technique, flotation, enhanced filtering, and AOPs are evaluated for microplastic removal. The fate and behaviour of microplastics in WWTPs suggest they may be secondary suppliers of microplastics to receiving ecosystems. Innovative microplastic removal strategies and technologies such as nanoparticles, microorganism-based remediation, and tertiary treatment raise issues. These new WWTP technologies are examined for feasibility, limitations, and implementation issues. Pretreatment modifies microplastic size, adsorption potential, and surface morphology to remove microplastics from WWTPs. Membrane bioreactors (MBR) can remove 99.9% of microplastics more efficiently than other approaches. MBR systems require membrane cleaning and fouling control, which raises operational and capital costs. To reduce MPs, plastic alternatives and strict controls, including microplastic waste transformation, should be prioritized. Microplastics must be controlled through monitoring policy execution and awareness.
147The removal of microplastics from water by coagulation: A comprehensive review.PubMed
Wenhao Tang, Hua Li, Lianyue Fei, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2022 Dec 10;851(Pt 1):158224. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158224. Epub 2022 Aug 22.
Drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are the first and last hurdles for the prevention of microplastics (MPs) pollution, respectively. With coagulation as one of the most critical technologies for the removal of MPs in water treatment plants, there is an urgent need to gain an in-depth understanding of the mechanisms and influencing factors of MPs removal during coagulation. In this paper, the research progress of adopting coagulation in MPs removal in recent years is reviewed, the removal effect of coagulation in water treatment plants are compared, and the role of three coagulation mechanisms, i.e., charge neutralization, adsorption bridging, and sweep flocculation in MPs removal process are identified. The effect of coagulant performance, MPs characteristics, operation conditions and other parameters on the removal of MPs are systematically analyzed. It is found that the combined coagulation techniques have better removal efficiency, can better decrease MP pollution and meet strict discharge standards. Moreover, flaws in the application of coagulation technology are pointed out, and strategies to deal with them are also proposed. Hopefully, this review can not only contribute to a better understanding of the mechanism of MPs removal by coagulation technology, but also serve as a useful guide for future research on MPs removal.
148Removal of nanoplastics in water treatment processes: A review.PubMed
M Keerthana Devi, N Karmegam, S Manikandan, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2022 Nov 1;845:157168. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157168. Epub 2022 Jul 8.
Nanoplastics are drawing a significant attention as a result of their propensity to spread across the environment and pose a threat to all organisms. The presence of nanoplastics in water is given attention nowadays as the transit of nanoplastics occurs through the aquatic ecosphere besides terrestrial mobility. The principal removal procedures for macro-and micro-plastic particles are effective, but nanoparticles escape from the treatment, increasing in the water and significantly influencing the society. This critical review is aimed to bestow the removal technologies of nanoplastics from aquatic ecosystems, with a focus on the treatment of freshwater, drinking water, and wastewater, as well as the importance of transit and its impact on health concerns. Still, there exists a gap in providing a collective knowledge on the methods available for nanoplastics removal. Hence, this review offered various nanoplastic removal technologies (microorganism-based degradation, membrane separation with a reactor, and photocatalysis) that could be the practical/effective measures along with the traditional procedures (filtration, coagulation, centrifugation, flocculation, and gravity settling). From the analyses of different treatment systems, the effectiveness of nanoplastics removal depends on various factors, source, size, and type of nanoplastics apart from the treatment method adopted. Combined removal methods, filtration with coagulation offer great scope for the removal of nanoplastics from drinking water with >99 % efficiency. The collected data could serve as base-line information for future research and development in water nanoplastics cleanup.
149Microplastics from headwaters to tap water: occurrence and removal in a drinking water treatment plant in Barcelona Metropolitan area (Catalonia, NE Spain).PubMed
Joan Dalmau-Soler, Rubèn Ballesteros-Cano, Mª Rosa Boleda, et al.
Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2021 Nov;28(42):59462-59472. doi: 10.1007/s11356-021-13220-1. Epub 2021 Mar 11.
Nowadays, the presence of microplastics in drinking water is of concern worldwide due to potential impacts on human health. This paper has examined the presence of microplastics along the Llobregat river basin (Catalonia, Spain) and studied their behaviour and elimination along the drinking water treatment plant (DWTP). Due to different water composition, different sampling and sample preparation protocols were used to determine microplastics from river water and in the DWTP. Identification of microplastics of size range from 20 μm to 5 mm was performed by fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Microplastics were detected in 5 out of 7 points along the Llobregat basin, with concentrations ranging between non-detected and 3.60 microplastics/L. In the intake of the DWTP, the mean concentration was 0.96 ± 0.46 microplastics/L (n=5), with a predominance of polyester (PES) and polypropylene (PP) and at the outlet the mean concentration was of 0.06 ± 0.04 microplastics/L with an overall removal efficiency of 93 ± 5%. Sand filtration was identified as the key stage in microplastic removal (78 ± 9%). Furthermore, the results showed that ultrafiltration/reverse osmosis (advanced treatment) is more effective for microplastic removal than ozonation/carbon filtration stage (upgraded conventional treatment). In addition, a preliminary migration test of the different materials used in the DWTP has been performed to identify potential sources of microplastics in each treatment step.
150Occurrence and fate of microplastics from a water source to two different drinking water treatment plants in a megacity in eastern China.PubMed
Ziwei Han, Jiali Jiang, Jing Xia, et al.
Environ Pollut. 2024 Apr 1;346:123546. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123546. Epub 2024 Feb 16.
The widespread presence of microplastics (MPs) contamination in drinking water has raised concerns regarding water safety and public health. In this study, a micro-Raman spectrometer was used to trace the occurrence of MP transport from a water source to a drinking water treatment plant (DWTP)1 with an advanced treatment process and DWTP2 with a conventional treatment process and the contributions of different processes to the risk reduction of MPs were explored. Six types of MPs were detected: polyethylene terephthalate, polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyamide, and polyvinyl chloride. 2-5 μm (35.8-41.2%) and polyethylene terephthalate (27.1-29.9%) were the most frequently detected MP sizes and types of water source samples, respectively. The abundance of MPs in treated water decreased by 72.7-83.0% compared to raw water. Ozonation and granular activated carbon (52.7%), and sand filtration (47.5%) were the most effective processes for removing MPs from DWTP1 and DWTP2, respectively. Both DWTPs showed significant removal effects on polyethylene terephthalate, with 80.0-88.1% removal rates. The concentrations of polystyrene increase by 30.0-53.4% after chlorination. The dominant components in the treated water of DWTP1 and DWTP2 were polypropylene (24.7%) and polyethylene 27.7%, respectively, and MPs of 2-5 μm had the highest proportion (55.3-64.3%). Pollution load index and potential ecological risk index of raw water treated by DWTPs were reduced by 48.0-58.7% and 94.5-94.7%, respectively. The estimated daily intake of MPs in treated water for infants was 45.5-75.0 items/kg/d, respectively, approximately twice that of adults. This study contributes to the knowledge gap regarding MP pollution in drinking water systems.
151Remediation of Micro- and Nanoplastics by Membrane Technologies.PubMed
Michał Bodzek, Piotr Bodzek
Membranes (Basel). 2025 Mar 5;15(3):82. doi: 10.3390/membranes15030082.
Micro- and nanoplastics (NPs) cannot be completely removed from water/wastewater in conventional wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs). According to the literature analysis, membrane processes, one of the advanced treatment technologies, are the most effective and promising technologies for the removal of microplastics (MPs) from water and wastewater. In this article, firstly, the properties of MPs commonly found in water and wastewater treatment and their removal efficiencies are briefly reviewed. In addition, research on the use of microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration (NF), reverse osmosis (RO), and membrane bioreactors (MBR) for the remediation of MPs and NPs from water/wastewater is reviewed, and the advantages/disadvantages of each removal method are discussed. Membrane filtration is also compared with other methods used to remove MPs. Furthermore, the problem of membrane fouling by MPs during filtration and the potential for MPs to be released from the polymeric membrane structure are discussed. Finally, based on the literature survey, the current status and gaps in research on MPs removal by membrane technologies are identified, and recommendations for further research are made.
152A review of microplastic removal from water and wastewater by membrane technologies.PubMed
Seren Acarer
Water Sci Technol. 2023 Jul;88(1):199-219. doi: 10.2166/wst.2023.186.
Microplastics (MPs) cannot be completely removed from water/wastewater in conventional wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs). According to the literature analysis, membrane technologies, one of the advanced treatment technologies, are the most effective and promising technologies for MP removal from water and wastewater. In this paper, firstly, the properties of MPs commonly present in WWTPs/DWTPs and the MP removal efficiency of WWTPs/DWTPs are briefly reviewed. In addition, research studies on MP removal from water/wastewater by microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration (NF), reverse osmosis (RO), and membrane bioreactors (MBRs) are reviewed. In the next section, membrane filtration is compared with other methods used for MP removal from water/wastewater, and the advantages/disadvantages of the removal methods are discussed. Moreover, the problem of membrane fouling with MPs during filtration and the potential for MP release from polymeric membrane structure to water/wastewater are discussed. Finally, based on the studies in the literature, the current status and research deficiencies of MP removal by membrane technologies are identified, and recommendations are made for further studies.
153[Research Progress on Colloid Pump Effect of Micro- and Nanoplastics in Drinking Water].PubMed
Wei-Gao Zhao, Xiao-Qing Zhang, Yi-Mei Tian, et al.
Huan Jing Ke Xue. 2023 Oct 8;44(10):5861-5869. doi: 10.13227/j.hjkx.202210244.
Currently, micro- and nanoplastics are the most concerning pollutants, which have been confirmed to exist in every stage of drinking water treatment process. Micro- and nanoplastics in drinking water have large specific surface areas, which could adsorb inorganic matter, organic matter, and microorganisms, thereby increasing their risk to human health. The adsorption and agglomeration behavior of micro- and nanoplastics on typical pollutants is called the "colloid pump effect." Focused on the micro- and nanoplastics in drinking water, the occurrence, colloid pump effect, and toxic effect on the human body and the effect of colloid pumps on the removal of micro- and nanoplastics were summarized and described. The results revealed that micro- and nanoplastics existed widely in source water, treated water, pipe network water, and tap water. The colloid pump effect of micro- and nanoplastics promoted their agglomeration with inorganic matter, organic matter, and microorganisms, which not only intensified the toxic effect of micro- and nanoplastics but also affected the removal effect. There were different viewpoints on the effect of coagulation and sedimentation on the removal of micro- and nanoplastics, and the removal effect of sand filters was limited. The advanced treatment was an efficient process to remove micro- and nanoplastics with a particle size smaller than 5 μm. The removal rate of micro- and nanoplastics could be effectively improved by exploring the mechanism of the colloid pump effect and its initiation conditions. Finally, from the perspective of the drinking water treatment process and colloid pump effect, the control of micro- and nanoplastics in drinking water was prospected in order to provide reference for reducing the occurrence and toxicity of micro- and nanoplastics in drinking water, ensuring drinking water quality safety and human health.
154Microplastics contamination in water supply system and treatment processes.PubMed
Ngoc-Dan-Thanh Cao, Dieu-Hien Thi Vo, Mai-Duy-Thong Pham, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2024 May 20;926:171793. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171793. Epub 2024 Mar 20.
Due to global demand, millions of tons of plastics have been widely consumed, resulting in the widespread entry of vast amounts of microplastic particles into the environment. The presence of microplastics (MPs) in water supplies, including bottled water, has undergone systematic review, assessing the potential impacts of MPs on humans through exposure assessment. The main challenges associated with current technologies lie in their ability to effectively treat and completely remove MPs from drinking and supply water. While the risks posed by MPs upon entering the human body have not yet been fully revealed, there is a predicted certainty of negative impacts. This review encompasses a range of current technologies, spanning from basic to advanced treatments and varying in scale. However, given the frequent detection of MPs in drinking and bottled water, it becomes imperative to implement comprehensive management strategies to address this issue effectively. Consequently, integrating current technologies with management options such as life-cycle assessment, circular economy principles, and machine learning is crucial to eliminating this pervasive problem.
155Biodegradation and bioaugmentation of the co-contamination of chloramphenicol and microplastics by Exiguobacterium sp. CAP4 isolated from a contaminated plastisphere.PubMed
Zewen Tan, Yujiang Luo, Xiaoxu Sun, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2025 Jul 5;491:137973. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.137973. Epub 2025 Mar 19.
Microplastics (MPs) and antibiotics are newly emerging contaminants that have heavily accumulated in the environment and are a great cause of concern due to their co-contamination. Although the removal and degradation of individual MPs and antibiotics have been studied in various environments, our understanding of how to eliminate the co-contamination of MPs and antibiotics remains poor. In this study, the biodegradation of both micro polyethylene (mPE) and chloramphenicol (CAP) was analyzed in a wastewater sample. Members of the genera Exiguobacterium, Methanospirillum, Methanosaeta, and Candidatus Nitrocosmicus were proposed as biomarkers in plastisphere, which may contribute to the biodegradation of both contaminants. Notably, Exiguobacterium sp. CAP4 was isolated from the plastisphere and exhibited a high potential to degrade both CAP and mPE. Bioaugmentation with Exiguobacterium sp. CAP4 in mPEs and CAP contaminated wastewater facilitated the biodegradation of both mPE and CAP. This work expands the knowledge base regarding the simultaneous elimination of MPs and antibiotics in situ and identifies a promising bacterial strain for both MP and antibiotic biodegradation.
156Developments and application of chitosan-based adsorbents for wastewater treatments.PubMed
Pankaj Bhatt, Samiksha Joshi, Gulsum Melike Urper Bayram, et al.
Environ Res. 2023 Jun 1;226:115530. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.115530. Epub 2023 Feb 28.
Water quality is deteriorating continuously as increasing levels of toxic inorganic and organic contaminants mostly discharging into the aquatic environment. Removal of such pollutants from the water system is an emerging research area. During the past few years use of biodegradable and biocompatible natural additives has attracted considerable attention to alleviate pollutants from wastewater. The chitosan and its composites emerged as a promising adsorbents due to their low price, abundance, amino, and hydroxyl groups, as well as their potential to remove various toxins from wastewater. However, a few challenges associated with its practical use include lack of selectivity, low mechanical strength, and solubility in acidic medium. Therefore, several approaches for modification have been explored to improve the physicochemical properties of chitosan for wastewater treatment. Chitosan nanocomposites found effective for the removal of metals, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, microplastics from the wastewaters. Nanoparticle doped with chitosan in the form of nano-biocomposites has recently gained much attention and proven a successful tool for water purification. Hence, applying chitosan-based adsorbents with numerous modifications is a cutting-edge approach to eliminating toxic pollutants from aquatic systems with the global aim of making potable water available worldwide. This review presents an overview of distinct materials and methods for developing novel chitosan-based nanocomposites for wastewater treatment.
157Niche vs. habitat: Insights of aging microplastics and wetland types on bacterial community assembly.PubMed
Yansong Shi, Longrui Liang, Liang Meng, et al.
J Environ Sci (China). 2026 Jan;159:221-232. doi: 10.1016/j.jes.2025.04.010. Epub 2025 Apr 5.
Microorganisms can colonize the surface of microplastics (MPs) to form a distinctive microbiome, known as a "plastisphere" which is regarded as an anthropogenic niche for microbial growth. However, bacterial community assembly in virgin and aging MP plastispheres across different habitats is poorly understood. This study aims to assess the variations in bacterial community assembly across different niches and habitats with an in situ experiment, in which constructed forest wetland (FW), natural lake wetland (LW), and lotus pond wetland (LP) were habitats, and plastispheres of virgin and aging low-density polyethylene (LDPE) MPs, as well as surrounding wetland soils were niches. Significant niche-related differences in bacterial communities were observed, with lower diversity and enrichment of potential plastic-degrading bacteria in the plastisphere than in the soil bacterial communities. Furthermore, habitat-related differences exerted a more pronounced influence on the beta-diversity patterns of the bacterial communities. The linear regression analyses indicated that the local species pool contributed more to bacterial community assembly in the LW wetland, whereas the relative abundance of species was the primary factor in the LP wetland. The null model analysis indicated that plastisphere bacterial communities were predominantly driven by the stochastic process, with a more deterministic assembly observed in the LP wetland and soil bacterial communities. Additionally, the primary ecological process shaping plastisphere communities shifted from drift in the virgin LDPE to homogenising dispersal in the aging LDPE. This study provides new insights into the fate and ecological impacts of MPs in wetlands, thereby facilitating the effective regulations of plastic pollution.
158Biodegradable plastics: Green hope or greenwashing?PubMed
Jingkun Zhu, Can Wang
Mar Pollut Bull. 2020 Dec;161(Pt B):111774. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111774. Epub 2020 Oct 22.
The universality of plastic has an inescapable responsibility for the large-scale production of plastic wastes. Fossil-based plastics, which account for the majority of the market, are dazzling, and the global environmental pollution caused by them is also becoming more and more complicated. In addition to controlling the total amount at the source, people have also actively sought some emerging materials to replace existing conventional plastics so that they can be handled better and easier at the end. Biodegradable plastics (BPs) can theoretically shorten the life cycle of plastics and reduce environmental stress. However, in the natural environment, many factors are uncontrollable, and whether BPs can alleviate white pollution needs further certification. Due to the wide and complex physical and chemical conditions encountered in natural ecosystems, great care must be taken in trying to define this term. The current standards and test methods are insufficient to predict the biodegradability of BPs in the natural environment. Additionally, the existing standards and test methods for biodegradability of water environment do not involve toxicity tests, nor do they consider the potentially adverse ecological effects of BPs or micro BPs particles that may be produced by crushing. Therefore, this article mainly discusses whether BPs are green hope or greenwashing: 1) Degradability in the environment; 2) Impact of existing waste management; and 3) Recycling Impact of resources and impact on global carbon sequestration. Successfully solving these knowledge gaps is the key requirement of the new standard for the production of BPs.
159Biodegradable Plastics: Standards, Policies, and Impacts.PubMed
Layla Filiciotto, Gadi Rothenberg
ChemSusChem. 2021 Jan 7;14(1):56-72. doi: 10.1002/cssc.202002044. Epub 2020 Oct 28.
Plastics are ubiquitous in our society. They are in our phones, clothes, bottles, and cars. Yet having improved our lives considerably, they now threaten our environment and our health. The associated carbon emissions and persistency of plastics challenge the fragile balance of many ecosystems. One solution is using biodegradable plastics. Ideally, such plastics are easily assimilated by microorganisms and disappear from our environment. This can help reduce the problems of climate change, microplastics, and littering. However, biodegradable plastics are still only a tiny portion of the global plastics market and require further efforts in research and commercialization. Here, a critical overview of the state of the art of biodegradable plastics is given. Using a material flow analysis, the challenges of the plastic market are highlighted, and with it the large market potential of biodegradable plastics. The environmental and socio-economic impact of plastics, government policies, standards and certifications, physico-chemical properties, and analytical techniques are covered. The Review concludes with a personal outlook on the future of bioplastics, based on our own experience with their development and commercialization.
160Challenges and opportunities of biodegradable plastics: A mini review.PubMed
Maja Rujnić-Sokele, Ana Pilipović
Waste Manag Res. 2017 Feb;35(2):132-140. doi: 10.1177/0734242X16683272. Epub 2017 Jan 9.
The concept of materials coming from nature with environmental advantages of being biodegradable and/or biobased (often referred to as bioplastics) is very attractive to the industry and to the consumers. Bioplastics already play an important role in the fields of packaging, agriculture, gastronomy, consumer electronics and automotive, but still they have a very low share in the total production of plastics (currently about 1% of the about 300 million tonnes of plastic produced annually). Biodegradable plastics are often perceived as the possible solution for the waste problem, but biodegradability is just an additional feature of the material to be exploited at the end of its life in specific terms, in the specific disposal environment and in a specific time, which is often forgotten. They should be used as a favoured choice for the applications that demand a cheap way to dispose of the item after it has fulfilled its job (e.g. for food packaging, agriculture or medical products). The mini-review presents the opportunities and future challenges of biodegradable plastics, regarding processing, properties and waste management options.
161Biodegradable microplastics enhance soil microbial network complexity and ecological stochasticity.PubMed
Yuanze Sun, Xinfei Li, Na Cao, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2022 Oct 5;439:129610. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129610. Epub 2022 Jul 14.
Biodegradable plastics have emerged as an ecological alternative to conventional petroleum-based plastics. Despite the recent advances in the effects of conventional microplastic on soil ecosystems, the ecological impact of biodegradable microplastics in soil environments remains poorly understood. Here, we performed soil microcosms with conventional (polyethylene and polystyrene) and biodegradable (polybutylene succinate and polylactic acid) microplastics to estimate their effects on the success patterns, co-occurrence networks, and the assembly mechanisms of soil bacterial communities. Biodegradable microplastics significantly altered the soil bacterial community composition with steeper temporal turnovers (rate: 0.317 - 0.514) compared to the conventional microplastic treatments (rate: 0.211 - 0.220). Network under biodegradable microplastics showed greater network complexity, including network size, connectivity, average clustering coefficient, and the number of keystone species, as compared with the conventional microplastic treatments. Additionally, the biodegradable microplastic network had higher robustness, which may be potentially due to the enhanced dissolved organic carbon contents in the soil treated with biodegradable microplastics. The bacterial community assembly was initially governed by deterministic homogeneous selection (93 - 100 %) under the stress of microplastics, but was progressively structured by increasing stochastic homogeneous dispersal (17.8 - 73.3 %) over time. The normalized stochasticity ratio also revealed that the application of microplastics increased the importance of stochastic processes following incubation. These findings greatly enhanced our understanding of the ecological mechanisms and interactions of soil bacterial communities in response to microplastic stress.
162Challenges and opportunities in sustainable management of microplastics and nanoplastics in the environment.PubMed
Binoy Sarkar, Pavani Dulanja Dissanayake, Nanthi S Bolan, et al.
Environ Res. 2022 May 1;207:112179. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.112179. Epub 2021 Oct 5.
The accumulation of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems has raised concerns because of their adverse effects on ecosystem functions and human health. Plastic waste management has become a universal problem in recent years. Hence, sustainable plastic waste management techniques are vital for achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Although many reviews have focused on the occurrence and impact of micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs), there has been limited focus on the management of MNPs. This review first summarizes the ecotoxicological impacts of plastic waste sources and issues related to the sustainable management of MNPs in the environment. This paper then critically evaluates possible approaches for incorporating plastics into the circular economy in order to cope with the problem of plastics. Pollution associated with MNPs can be tackled through source reduction, incorporation of plastics into the circular economy, and suitable waste management. Appropriate infrastructure development, waste valorization, and economically sound plastic waste management techniques and viable alternatives are essential for reducing MNPs in the environment. Policymakers must pay more attention to this critical issue and implement appropriate environmental regulations to achieve environmental sustainability.
163A Path to a Reduction in Micro and Nanoplastics Pollution.PubMed
Jay N Meegoda, Mala C Hettiarachchi
Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2023 Apr 18;20(8):5555. doi: 10.3390/ijerph20085555.
Microplastics (MP) are plastic particles less than 5 mm in size. There are two categories of MP: primary and secondary. Primary or microscopic-sized MP are intentionally produced material. Fragmentation of large plastic debris through physical, chemical, and oxidative processes creates secondary MP, the most abundant type in the environment. Microplastic pollution has become a global environmental problem due to their abundance, poor biodegradability, toxicological properties, and negative impact on aquatic and terrestrial organisms including humans. Plastic debris enters the aquatic environment via direct dumping or uncontrolled land-based sources. While plastic debris slowly degrades into MP, wastewater and stormwater outlets discharge a large amount of MP directly into water bodies. Additionally, stormwater carries MP from sources such as tire wear, artificial turf, fertilizers, and land-applied biosolids. To protect the environment and human health, the entry of MP into the environment must be reduced or eliminated. Source control is one of the best methods available. The existing and growing abundance of MP in the environment requires the use of multiple strategies to combat pollution. These strategies include reducing the usage, public outreach to eliminate littering, reevaluation and use of new wastewater treatment and sludge disposal methods, regulations on macro and MP sources, and a wide implementation of appropriate stormwater management practices such as filtration, bioretention, and wetlands.
164Assessing the environmental and health impacts of plastic production and recyclingOpenAlex
Alex Olanrewaju Adekanmbi, Emmanuel Chigozie Ani, Ayodeji Abatan, et al.
Plastic production and recycling have become integral processes in modern society, but their environmental and health impacts have garnered significant attention in recent years. This review outlines key findings from a comprehensive assessment of these impacts, drawing from a range of scientific literature and empirical studies. The environmental footprint of plastic production encompasses various stages, from extraction of raw materials to manufacturing and distribution. These processes contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, energy consumption, and pollution of air, water, and soil. Additionally, plastic waste, particularly single-use items, poses a significant threat to ecosystems and wildlife, with marine environments being particularly vulnerable. While recycling is often promoted as a solution to mitigate the environmental impact of plastics, its effectiveness is limited by various factors. Challenges such as contamination, inadequate infrastructure, and low rates of collection and recycling hinder the potential benefits. Moreover, the recycling process itself can generate pollutants and emissions, albeit to a lesser extent than primary production. Beyond environmental concerns, the health implications of plastic use are increasingly recognized. Plastics contain additives such as phthalates and bisphenols, which have been linked to endocrine disruption, reproductive issues, and other health problems in humans and wildlife. Furthermore, the accumulation of microplastics in the environment raises concerns about potential bioaccumulation and transfer through the food chain, with implications for human health. Addressing the environmental and health impacts of plastic production and recycling requires a multifaceted approach, including reduction of plastic consumption, improvement of recycling infrastructure and technologies, development of alternative materials, and policy interventions to promote sustainable practices. This assessment highlights the complex interplay between plastic usage, environmental degradation, and public health, underscoring the need for concerted efforts to mitigate these challenges.
169Microplastic sources, formation, toxicity and remediation: a reviewOpenAlex
Ahmed I. Osman, Mohamed Hosny, Abdelazeem S. Eltaweil, et al.
Microplastic pollution is becoming a major issue for human health due to the recent discovery of microplastics in most ecosystems. Here, we review the sources, formation, occurrence, toxicity and remediation methods of microplastics. We distinguish ocean-based and land-based sources of microplastics. Microplastics have been found in biological samples such as faeces, sputum, saliva, blood and placenta. Cancer, intestinal, pulmonary, cardiovascular, infectious and inflammatory diseases are induced or mediated by microplastics. Microplastic exposure during pregnancy and maternal period is also discussed. Remediation methods include coagulation, membrane bioreactors, sand filtration, adsorption, photocatalytic degradation, electrocoagulation and magnetic separation. Control strategies comprise reducing plastic usage, behavioural change, and using biodegradable plastics. Global plastic production has risen dramatically over the past 70 years to reach 359 million tonnes. China is the world's top producer, contributing 17.5% to global production, while Turkey generates the most plastic waste in the Mediterranean region, at 144 tonnes per day. Microplastics comprise 75% of marine waste, with land-based sources responsible for 80-90% of pollution, while ocean-based sources account for only 10-20%. Microplastics induce toxic effects on humans and animals, such as cytotoxicity, immune response, oxidative stress, barrier attributes, and genotoxicity, even at minimal dosages of 10 μg/mL. Ingestion of microplastics by marine animals results in alterations in gastrointestinal tract physiology, immune system depression, oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, differential gene expression, and growth inhibition. Furthermore, bioaccumulation of microplastics in the tissues of aquatic organisms can have adverse effects on the aquatic ecosystem, with potential transmission of microplastics to humans and birds. Changing individual behaviours and governmental actions, such as implementing bans, taxes, or pricing on plastic carrier bags, has significantly reduced plastic consumption to 8-85% in various countries worldwide. The microplastic minimisation approach follows an upside-down pyramid, starting with prevention, followed by reducing, reusing, recycling, recovering, and ending with disposal as the least preferable option.
170Stakeholder analysis with regard to a recent European restriction proposal on microplasticsOpenAlex
Lauge Peter Westergaard Clausen, Oliver Foss Hessner Hansen, Nikoline Bang Oturai, et al.
Stakeholder involvement is pivotal EU governance. In this paper, we complete a stakeholder analysis of the European Chemicals Agency's recent Annex XV restriction proposal process on intentionally added microplastics. The aim of this study is to map the interests, influence and importance of active stakeholders in order to understand the arguments being put forward by different stakeholders and provide recommendations to policy-makers on how to ensure a balanced consideration of all stakeholder perspectives. Stakeholders were identified through niche media analysis and by scrutinising comments from the public consultation on the restriction proposal. Their importance and influence were mapped using three approaches: "scale from low to high", "psychometric scale" and "qualitative ranking". We identified 205 different stakeholders out of which 77 were industry and trade associations, 25 were large companies and only four were small and medium-sized enterprises. National authorities and researchers did not comment on the restriction proposal, whilst large companies were very active providing comments. Industry trade associations and sports-related non-governmental organizations articulated anxiety about the costs associated with the implementation of the restriction proposal. Among environmental non-governmental organizations, there was consensus that plastics should be handled like other substances under EU's chemical regulation. Primary stakeholders identified exhibited high importance, but varying degrees of influence, while the opposite applied to the major European institutions. Based on our analysis, we recommend that: The European Chemicals Agency implement measures to include "silent" stakeholders and invite guest experts to participate in their committees on Risk Assessment and Socio-Economic Analysis; Researchers should be more active in the public consultation; and that special emphasis should be put on helping small and medium-sized enterprises. With regards to stakeholder consultation, we find that media analysis is a good supplement to stakeholder analysis and that a more objective top-down measure of stakeholder importance and influence is needed.
171Microplastic regulation should be more precise to incentivize both innovation and environmental safetyOpenAlex
Denise M. Mitrano, Wendel Wohlleben
The presence of plastic in the environment has sparked discussion amongst scientists, regulators and the general public as to how industrialization and consumerism is shaping our world. Here we discuss restrictions on the intentional use of primary microplastics: small solid polymer particles in applications ranging from agriculture to cosmetics. Microplastic hazards are uncertain, and actions are not similarly prioritized by all actors. In some instances, replacement is technically simple and easily justified, but in others substitutions may come with more uncertainty, performance questions and costs. Scientific impact assessment of primary microplastics compared to their alternatives relies on a number of factors, such as microplastic harm, existence of replacement materials and the quality, cost and hazards of alternative materials. Regulations need a precise focus and must be enforceable by these measurements. Policymakers must carefully evaluate under which contexts incentives to replace certain microplastics can stimulate innovation of new, more competitive and environmentally conscious materials.
172Addressing the environmental and health impacts of microplastics requires open collaboration between diverse sectorsOpenAlex
Scott Coffin, Holly Wyer, J. C. Leapman
Public concern over the environmental and public health impacts of the emerging contaminant class "microplastics" has recently prompted government agencies to consider mitigation efforts. Microplastics do not easily fit within traditional risk-based regulatory frameworks because their persistence and extreme diversity (of size, shape, and chemical properties associated with sorbed chemicals) result in high levels of uncertainty in hazard and exposure estimates. Due to these serious complexities, addressing microplastics' impacts requires open collaboration between scientists, regulators, and policymakers. Here we describe ongoing international mitigation efforts, with California as a case study, and draw lessons from a similarly diverse and environmentally persistent class of emerging contaminants (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances) that is already disrupting traditional regulatory paradigms, discuss strategies to address challenges associated with developing health-protective regulations and policies related to microplastics, and suggest ways to maximize impacts of research.
173Consideration of emerging environmental contaminants in africa: Review of occurrence, formation, fate, and toxicity of plastic particlesOpenAlex
Prosper Naah Angnunavuri, Francis Attiogbé, Bismark Mensah
Plastic particles are small micro and nano range materials internationally produced for industrial applications or as a result of the breakdown of larger plastics. The accumulation of plastic particles varies spatially and temporally, with locations, hydrodynamic conditions, environmental pressure, time, and anthropogenic factors accounting for the disparities in dispersal and distribution. The accelerating global release of plastic particles into the environment seems unending, with long-term consequences for water quality, biodiversity, biological conservation, and human health. In this paper, we review the formation, presence, and toxicity of plastic particles in water, land, and air. Plastic wastes and plastic particles are increasing in abundance every year with increased consumption and rise in the global population. These materials are easily transported over long distances and become ubiquitous in their distribution on land, water, and air with unknown and unproven ecological and human health risks. Notwithstanding the potential threats to ecological health, literary records of plastic particle contamination of environmental media in Africa are very scanty. Managing environmental waste plastics and plastic particles and ensuring effective intervention policies and practices requires an understanding of plastic particles sources, transport, and fate, through regional and international collaboration, and interdisciplinary research. In consideration of the potential threats of plastic particles to ecological functions and human health risks, we recommend specific regulation of microplastics in consumer products. The information contained in this paper adds to the growing body of knowledge in the study of micro- and nano-plastic particles worldwide but with particular reference to developing countries.
174Current status and cause analysis of microplastic pollution in sea areas in ChinaOpenAlex
Wei Xiong, Xi Mei, Bei-bei Mi, et al.
As a new type of pollutants in the marine environment, microplastics have attracted increasing attention from scientific researchers and environmental protection workers in China and abroad. However, for the microplastic pollution in sea areas in China, there are a very limited number of studies on its current status and few reviews of research on the microplastics. This paper reviews the surveys and researches of microplastics in the Bohai Sea, the Yellow Sea, the East China Sea, the South China Sea, and main estuaries in China carried out in recent years and proposes an outlook for future work, aiming to provide research suggestions and solutions for ecological protection against microplastic pollution in sea areas in China. Previous studies have shown that microplastics are widely distributed in water bodies and sediments in sea areas and major estuaries in China. The Pearl River Estuary, in the South China Sea suffers the most serious microplastic pollution, followed by the Bohai Sea. In contrast, the microplastic pollution in the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea is comparatively slight. Microplastics in sea areas in China are mainly fibrous and are concentrated in offshore areas with developed industry and a dense population (especially around estuaries and bays). In addition, they are widely affected by human activities, such as shipping, aquaculture, industry, and sewage discharge. Here the authors suggest unifying measurement units and research methods and developing related standard systems to carry out researches related to microplastics. Furthermore, this paper also suggests further deepening researches on both the source-sink process of microplastics and nanoscale microplastics while enhancing the development and implementation of related policies, aiming to promote researches and control of microplastics in sea areas in China.
177Exploring Plastic-Management Policy in China: Status, Challenges and Policy InsightsOpenAlex
Chen Liu, Chang Liu
Plastic pollution is recognized as one of the most urgent global environmental concerns. China is the top producer and consumer of plastics and creates the most plastic waste globally. To evaluate policy options to control plastic pollution in China, we first reviewed the relevant policies and action plans in place. Then, we examined plastic-material flows and changes at the national level based on officially published data to evaluate the current situation and efficacy of policies at the macro-level. Results showed that 2016, the start of the 13th Five-Year Plan, was a pivotal year in the history of China’s plastic policies tackling plastic issues nationally and internationally. Since 2016, the growth trend in the production and consumption of plastic products has slowed and the recycling rate has risen, surpassing 30% in 2021. To further tackle plastic pollution, key suggestions with important policy implications were provided, covering better integration of policies, the combined management of vertical–horizontal governance, tracking-system implementation, the introduction of a quality-certification system, the development of behaviour-based consumer-oriented solutions, the promotion of stakeholder collaboration, and the need for appropriate post-COVID-19 policies.
179Chemical Analysis of Microplastics and Nanoplastics: Challenges, Advanced Methods, and Perspectives.PubMed
Natalia P Ivleva
Chem Rev. 2021 Oct 13;121(19):11886-11936. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00178. Epub 2021 Aug 26.
Microplastics and nanoplastics have become emerging particulate anthropogenic pollutants and rapidly turned into a field of growing scientific and public interest. These tiny plastic particles are found in the environment all around the globe as well as in drinking water and food, raising concerns about their impacts on the environment and human health. To adequately address these issues, reliable information on the ambient concentrations of microplastics and nanoplastics is needed. However, micro- and nanoplastic particles are extremely complex and diverse in terms of their size, shape, density, polymer type, surface properties, etc. While the particle concentrations in different media can vary by up to 10 orders of magnitude, analysis of such complex samples may resemble searching for a needle in a haystack. This highlights the critical importance of appropriate methods for the chemical identification, quantification, and characterization of microplastics and nanoplastics. The present article reviews advanced methods for the representative mass-based and particle-based analysis of microplastics, with a focus on the sensitivity and lower-size limit for detection. The advantages and limitations of the methods, and their complementarity for the comprehensive characterization of microplastics are discussed. A special attention is paid to the approaches for reliable analysis of nanoplastics. Finally, an outlook for establishing harmonized and standardized methods to analyze these challenging contaminants is presented, and perspectives within and beyond this research field are discussed.
180Critical gaps in nanoplastics research and their connection to risk assessment.PubMed
Brittany E Cunningham, Emma E Sharpe, Susanne M Brander, et al.
Front Toxicol. 2023 Apr 24;5:1154538. doi: 10.3389/ftox.2023.1154538. eCollection 2023.
Reports of plastics, at higher levels than previously thought, in the water that we drink and the air that we breathe, are generating considerable interest and concern. Plastics have been recorded in almost every environment in the world with estimates on the order of trillions of microplastic pieces. Yet, this may very well be an underestimate of plastic pollution as a whole. Once microplastics (<5 mm) break down in the environment, they nominally enter the nanoscale (<1,000 nm), where they cannot be seen by the naked eye or even with the use of a typical laboratory microscope. Thus far, research has focused on plastics in the macro- (>25 mm) and micro-size ranges, which are easier to detect and identify, leaving large knowledge gaps in our understanding of nanoplastic debris. Our ability to ask and answer questions relating to the transport, fate, and potential toxicity of these particles is disadvantaged by the detection and identification limits of current technology. Furthermore, laboratory exposures have been substantially constrained to the study of commercially available nanoplastics; i.e., polystyrene spheres, which do not adequately reflect the composition of environmental plastic debris. While a great deal of plastic-focused research has been published in recent years, the pattern of the work does not answer a number of key factors vital to calculating risk that takes into account the smallest plastic particles; namely, sources, fate and transport, exposure measures, toxicity and effects. These data are critical to inform regulatory decision making and to implement adaptive management strategies that mitigate risk to human health and the environment. This paper reviews the current state-of-the-science on nanoplastic research, highlighting areas where data are needed to establish robust risk assessments that take into account plastics pollution. Where nanoplastic-specific data are not available, suggested substitutions are indicated.
181Challenges and Recent Analytical Advances in Micro/Nanoplastic Detection.PubMed
Seungyeop Choi, Seungha Lee, Myung-Ki Kim, et al.
Anal Chem. 2024 Jun 4;96(22):8846-8854. doi: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c05948. Epub 2024 May 17.
Despite growing ecological concerns, studies on microplastics and nanoplastics are still in their initial stages owing to technical hurdles in analytical techniques, especially for nanoplastics. We provide an overview of the general attributes of micro/nanoplastics in natural environments and analytical techniques commonly used for their analysis. After demonstrating the analytical challenges associated with the identification of nanoplastics due to their distinctive characteristics, we discuss recent technological advancements for detecting nanoplastics.
182The potential impacts of micro-and-nano plastics on various organ systems in humans.PubMed
Nurshad Ali, Jenny Katsouli, Emma L Marczylo, et al.
EBioMedicine. 2024 Jan;99:104901. doi: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2023.104901. Epub 2023 Dec 6.
Humans are exposed to micro-and-nano plastics (MNPs) through various routes, but the adverse health effects of MNPs on different organ systems are not yet fully understood. This review aims to provide an overview of the potential impacts of MNPs on various organ systems and identify knowledge gaps in current research. The summarized results suggest that exposure to MNPs can lead to health effects through oxidative stress, inflammation, immune dysfunction, altered biochemical and energy metabolism, impaired cell proliferation, disrupted microbial metabolic pathways, abnormal organ development, and carcinogenicity. There is limited human data on the health effects of MNPs, despite evidence from animal and cellular studies. Most of the published research has focused on specific types of MNPs to assess their toxicity, while other types of plastic particles commonly found in the environment remain unstudied. Future studies should investigate MNPs exposure by considering realistic concentrations, dose-dependent effects, individual susceptibility, and confounding factors.
183Impact of microplastics and nanoplastics on liver health: Current understanding and future research directions.PubMed
Chun-Cheng Chiang, Hsuan Yeh, Ruei-Feng Shiu, et al.
World J Gastroenterol. 2024 Mar 7;30(9):1011-1017. doi: 10.3748/wjg.v30.i9.1011.
With continuous population and economic growth in the 21 century, plastic pollution is a major global issue. However, the health concern of microplastics/ nanoplastics (MPs/NPs) decomposed from plastic wastes has drawn public attention only in the recent decade. This article summarizes recent works dedicated to understanding the impact of MPs/NPs on the liver-the largest digestive organ, which is one of the primary routes that MPs/NPs enter human bodies. The interrelated mechanisms including oxidative stress, hepatocyte energy re-distribution, cell death and autophagy, as well as immune responses and inflammation, were also featured. In addition, the disturbance of microbiome and gut-liver axis, and the association with clinical diseases such as metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease, steatohepatitis, liver fibrosis, and cirrhosis were briefly discussed. Finally, we discussed potential directions in regard to this trending topic, highlighted current challenges in research, and proposed possible solutions.
184Science-society-policy interface for microplastic and nanoplastic: Environmental and biomedical aspects.PubMed
Ratul Kumar Das, Doyeli Sanyal, Pratik Kumar, et al.
Environ Pollut. 2021 Dec 1;290:117985. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117985. Epub 2021 Aug 18.
The global concern over the possible consequences of the downsizing of plastic to microplastics (MPs) and nano plastics (NPs) needs to be addressed with a new conceptual framework. The transformation of plastics to MPs and NPs can be discussed in terms of fundamental physics principles applicable to micro and nanophase matter and colloidal science principles. Further, accurate and reliable detection and characterization of MPs and NPs are crucial for an extensive understanding of their environmental and ecological impacts. The other decisive factor that can classify MPs and NPs as hazardous to existing nanomaterials is discussing the cytotoxicity study on human cell lines. The human health risk assessment that might arise from the ingestion of MPs and NPs can be addressed about contrast agents used for medical imaging. However, the lack of standard analytical techniques for MPs and NPs measurement is an emerging challenge for analytical scientists due to their complex physicochemical properties, especially in environmental samples. This review article navigates readers through the point of origin of MPs and NPs and their interdisciplinary aspects. Biomedical applications of plastics and concerns over the toxicity of MPs and NPs are further analyzed. Moreover, the analytical challenges of MPs and NPs have been discussed with critical inputs. Finally, the worldwide efforts being made for creating a common platform of discussion on a different aspect of plastic pollution were taken into account.
185Microplastics in freshwater systems: Occurrence and effects.PubMed
Paolo Pastorino, Damià Barceló, Christian Griebler
J Contam Hydrol. 2026 Feb;277:104824. doi: 10.1016/j.jconhyd.2025.104824. Epub 2025 Dec 23.
Micro(nano)plastics (MNPs) have been detected in every environmental compartment, yet most research still focused on marine systems. Although freshwater environments are key pathways for the transport of plastics from land to sea, they remained comparatively underexplored. This Virtual Special Issue (VSI) of Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, titled "Microplastics in freshwater systems: occurrence and effects", partly fills this gap by gathering 45 contributions (30 research articles and 15 reviews) from across the globe. Together, the VSI provides a comprehensive view of MNP occurrence, transport, fate, and ecotoxicological effects in various freshwater habitats, including estuary ecosystems. The collected manuscripts highlight advances in analytical methods, modeling, and mitigation strategies, while identifying major knowledge gaps such as limited long-term data sets, methodological inconsistencies, and scarce field-based ecotoxicological studies. This VSI underscores the need for standardized quantification methods, interdisciplinary approaches, and stronger links between science and policy to support effective management of plastic pollution in freshwater systems.