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  3. andiconin类天然产物的生物合成机制与结构多样性研究

andiconin类天然产物的生物合成机制与结构多样性研究

深度研究匿名用户发表于 2025年10月12日 11:170阅读
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1. andiconin类天然产物的概述与研究意义

1.1 化学结构特征与分类

andiconin类天然产物是一类具有显著生物活性的真菌源嵌合萜类(meroterpenoid)化合物。这类化合物的核心骨架通常由一个聚酮部分和一个萜类部分通过特定的偶联反应形成,展现出复杂的环系结构和丰富的官能团修饰。嵌合萜类,如andiconin,其结构多样性主要来源于聚酮链的长度、萜类前体的类型以及后续的多种酶促修饰反应1。例如,补骨脂酚(Bakuchiol)是另一种典型的嵌合萜类化合物,其结构特征包括酚羟基和异戊烯基侧链2。

andiconin类天然产物的核心结构特征在于其独特的碳骨架,通常包含多个环和手性中心。常见的官能团修饰类型包括羟基化、环氧化、氧化重排、脱氢以及可能发生的糖基化等345。这些修饰极大地增加了化合物的立体化学复杂性和结构多样性。根据其结构特征和修饰程度,andiconin类化合物可以细分为不同的子类。例如,根据其骨架类型和官能团修饰的模式,可以区分出具有不同氧化程度和环化模式的andiconin衍生物。某些衍生物可能含有独特的内过氧化桥,而另一些则可能表现出复杂的骨架重排产物。例如,emeridone F是一种andiconin衍生物,其特征结构包含了由氧化重排和环氧化反应形成的复杂环系3。这种结构多样性是理解其生物合成机制和探索其药理活性的基础。

1.2 生物活性与应用价值

andiconin类天然产物因其独特的化学结构而展现出广泛的生物活性,使其在药物开发领域具有巨大的应用潜力。已报道的药理活性包括抗菌、抗肿瘤、抗炎、抗氧化以及免疫调节等。例如,某些andiconin衍生物已被证实对多种细菌和真菌表现出显著的抑制作用,提示其可作为新型抗感染药物的先导化合物。在抗肿瘤方面,研究发现andiconin类化合物能够诱导癌细胞凋亡、抑制肿瘤细胞增殖和转移,并且可能通过影响细胞周期、信号转导通路等多种机制发挥抗癌作用。这些多样化的生物活性使得andiconin类化合物成为天然药物研究的热点之一。

解析andiconin类化合物的生物合成机制对于其定向改造和资源利用具有至关重要的意义。首先,阐明生物合成途径可以指导通过合成生物学和代谢工程手段,在异源宿主中高效生产这些珍贵的天然产物,解决天然来源稀少的问题。其次,深入理解关键酶的催化功能和特异性,特别是负责后期修饰的α-酮戊二酸依赖双加氧酶等,将为通过酶法转化或基因工程改造微生物菌株,实现新型andiconin衍生物的创制提供理论依据和技术路线。通过对生物合成途径的精准调控和修饰,有望获得具有更优异药理活性、更低毒性或特定功能的新分子,从而加速andiconin类化合物在医药、农业等领域的应用开发,充分发挥其潜在价值。

2. andiconin生物合成基因簇的解析与调控

2.1 基因簇的鉴定与组成

andiconin类天然产物的生物合成依赖于特定的生物合成基因簇(BGCs)。这些基因簇通常编码了合成前体、组装骨架以及进行后期修饰所需的所有酶。基因组挖掘是鉴定andiconin BGCs的关键策略之一。以内生真菌Aspergillus sp. TJ23为例,研究人员通过对该菌株基因组的深入分析,成功鉴定了负责andiconin及其衍生物(如emeridone F、aspermerodione和andiconin C)生物合成的基因簇367。基因组挖掘通常结合生物信息学工具,如antiSMASH,通过识别基因组中编码已知类型次级代谢产物合成酶(如聚酮合酶、非核糖体肽合成酶、萜类合酶等)的基因,来预测潜在的BGCs 89。

andiconin生物合成基因簇的组成通常包括多个关键酶基因。其中,萜类合酶(terpene synthase)负责合成andiconin分子中的萜类部分,例如通过甲羟戊酸(MVA)途径或甲基赤藓糖醇磷酸(MEP)途径合成法尼基焦磷酸(FPP)等萜类前体10。聚酮合酶(polyketide synthase, PKS)则负责合成聚酮部分,其类型和模块化结构决定了聚酮链的长度和修饰模式。此外,基因簇中还包含大量的氧化修饰酶基因,如细胞色素P450单加氧酶(CYP450s)和α-酮戊二酸依赖性双加氧酶(αKGDDs)3。这些酶在andiconin骨架的环化、羟基化、环氧化以及氧化重排等后期修饰反应中发挥关键作用,是andiconin结构多样性的主要来源3。例如,在Aspergillus sp. TJ23菌株中,已鉴定出SptF和SptN两种α-酮戊二酸依赖性双加氧酶,它们在emeridone F的生物合成中分别催化氧化重排和环氧化,以及C-9位的羟基化反应3。基因簇的整体功能预测通常基于这些关键酶基因的识别,从而构建出andiconin生物合成的初步途径模型。

2.2 基因簇的表达调控机制

andiconin生物合成基因簇的表达受到精细的调控,以确保在特定环境条件下实现次级代谢产物的有效合成。这种调控机制主要涉及转录调控因子以及环境因素的影响。

在真菌中,次级代谢产物生物合成基因簇的表达通常由途径特异性转录激活子(pathway-specific transcriptional activators)调控 11。这些激活子能够识别并结合到BGCs基因启动子区域的特定DNA序列,从而促进相关酶基因的转录。例如,在许多真菌次级代谢途径中,存在着Zn(II)2Cys6型转录因子,它们被认为是调控次级代谢产物合成的关键因素。对于andiconin BGCs,虽然具体的途径特异性激活子尚未完全阐明,但可以推测存在类似的调控模式,通过特定转录因子协调启动簇内所有基因的表达,以保证生物合成途径的顺畅运行。

环境因素对andiconin生物合成的调控也至关重要。碳源、氮源、pH值、温度、水活度以及氧化应激等条件均能显著影响真菌次级代谢产物的产量和类型 12。例如,在其他真菌次级代谢产物的研究中,高浓度的葡萄糖等易利用碳源可能通过碳代谢抑制(carbon catabolite repression, CCR)机制抑制次级代谢途径的表达,而次优碳源或碳饥饿则可能激活BGCs。类似地,氮源的种类和浓度也能影响代谢流向,进而调控andiconin的合成。pH值作为一个重要的环境信号,能够改变细胞内酶的活性和基因表达模式。真菌通过感知外部pH变化,激活或抑制相应的信号通路,如pH响应途径,从而影响次级代谢产物的生成。

此外,多种信号通路也可能参与andiconin生物合成的调控。例如,钙离子作为细胞内重要的信使,其浓度变化可以通过钙调素-钙调磷酸酶信号通路(calmodulin-calcineurin signaling cascade)影响多种真菌次级代谢产物的合成 13。磷酸盐浓度也被发现能够调节数百种真菌代谢产物的生物合成,其主要机制通过Pho4转录因子介导 13。高ATP浓度会导致肌醇焦磷酸(inositol pyrophosphate)分子的形成,这些分子作为磷酸化状态的报告者,也可能间接影响次级代谢 13。氧化应激和渗透压等环境压力也可能通过激活应激响应信号通路,进而影响andiconin BGCs的表达。深入研究这些环境因素及其对应的信号通路,将有助于理解andiconin生物合成的复杂调控网络,为通过发酵优化提高产量提供理论依据。

3. 核心前体的生物合成路径

3.1 萜类与聚酮前体的组装

andiconin类天然产物作为嵌合萜类化合物,其生物合成的核心在于萜类和聚酮两种前体的组装。这两种前体分别由不同的生物合成途径提供,并在后续步骤中偶联形成andiconin的复杂骨架。

萜类部分的生物合成:
andiconin的萜类部分通常来源于法尼基焦磷酸(Farnesyl Diphosphate, FPP)或其他链长不同的异戊烯基焦磷酸。FPP的生物合成主要通过甲羟戊酸(MVA)途径或甲基赤藓糖醇磷酸(MEP)途径。在真菌中,MVA途径是合成FPP的主要路径,该途径从乙酰-CoA开始,通过一系列酶促反应生成异戊烯基焦磷酸(Isopentenyl Diphosphate, IPP)和二甲基烯丙基焦磷酸(Dimethylallyl Diphosphate, DMAPP)。随后,DMAPP与IPP或其同系物缩合,逐步形成香叶基焦磷酸(Geranyl Diphosphate, GPP)、FPP,甚至更长的萜类前体如香叶基香叶基焦磷酸(Geranylgeranyl Diphosphate, GGPP)1415。萜类合酶(terpene synthase, TS)是催化这些异戊烯基焦磷酸前体环化和重排,形成多样化萜类骨架的关键酶161718。例如,在andiconin的生物合成中,一种特定的萜类合酶可能负责将FPP转化为andiconin骨架中的三环或双环萜类结构。这些酶通常通过形成高度活泼的碳正离子中间体,引导底物进行复杂的环化和重排反应,从而产生独特的立体化学结构19。部分细菌萜类合酶如链霉菌中的Spata-13,17-diene Synthase,在催化过程中可能表现出对特定金属辅因子(如Mn2+)的依赖性,并且活性位点的关键残基(如Asp-217)对产物的形成有重要影响20。

聚酮部分的生物合成:
andiconin的聚酮部分则由聚酮合酶(Polyketide Synthase, PKS)组装而成。PKSs是大型多功能酶,它们通过迭代地将乙酰-CoA和/或丙二酰-CoA等短链羧酸单元缩合到生长中的聚酮链上,从而合成线性或支链的聚酮链21。根据其结构和催化机制,PKSs可分为I型、II型和III型。andiconin的聚酮部分很可能由迭代型非还原性聚酮合酶(Iterative Nonreducing PKS, NR-PKS)合成,这类PKSs通常负责真菌中芳香族聚酮化合物的生物合成22。在聚酮链的延伸过程中,PKSs的催化机制涉及一系列结构域的协同作用,包括酰基载体蛋白(ACP)、酮合酶(KS)、酰基转移酶(AT)、脱水酶(DH)和还原酶(KR)等。这些结构域决定了聚酮链的长度、还原程度和引入的官能团类型。例如,脱水酶(DH)结构域能够催化水分子消除,引入碳碳双键,并且某些变体可以催化连续两次脱水形成共轭二烯结构23。此外,聚酮链还可能通过特殊的酶,如3-羟基-3-甲基戊二酰合酶(HMGS)实现β-位支链的引入,进一步增加结构多样性24。

前体融合的偶联过程:
萜类和聚酮前体在andiconin生物合成中偶联是形成其嵌合结构的决定性步骤。这种偶联通常发生在PKS和TS途径的产物被活化后。具体的偶联机制可能包括亲电芳香取代、Diels-Alder反应或酶促Michael加成等。在真菌嵌合萜类化合物中,一种常见的策略是PKS先合成一个聚酮中间体,该中间体可能具有反应性强的官能团(如酚羟基或烯烃),然后萜类前体(如FPP)或其衍生化的碳正离子通过亲电攻击偶联到聚酮中间体上。这一过程通常由特定的偶联酶催化,确保区域选择性和立体选择性。偶联后形成的初始骨架随后经历环化,形成andiconin特征性的多环结构。理解这一偶联过程中的关键酶和反应机制,对于解析andiconin的完整生物合成途径至关重要。

3.2 初始骨架的形成与环化

andiconin类天然产物在萜类和聚酮前体偶联后,其核心骨架的形成通常涉及复杂的环化反应。这些环化过程是构建andiconin特有三维结构的关键步骤,主要包括酶促Diels-Alder反应以及其他类型的酶促环化反应。

酶促Diels-Alder反应:
Diels-Alder反应是一种[4+2]环加成反应,在有机合成中广泛用于构建环己烯衍生物,近年来发现该反应在天然产物生物合成中也扮演着重要角色 25。对于andiconin这类嵌合萜类化合物,其初始骨架的形成很可能涉及聚酮衍生的烯烃或醌与萜类衍生的二烯或单烯之间的Diels-Alder反应。例如,在atra-chilenins A和B的仿生全合成中,就利用了醌型嵌合萜类与β-罗勒烯之间的分子间Diels-Alder反应来构建其核心骨架 26。虽然这种反应也可以在无酶条件下进行,但酶促Diels-Alderase(如某些真菌Diels-Alder酶)能够显著提高反应速率、区域选择性和立体选择性,引导生成特定构象的环状产物 27。这些酶通过将底物精确地定位在活性位点,促进电子运动和过渡态稳定,从而实现高效和高度选择性的环化。Diels-Alder反应后形成的环己烯结构,是andiconin类化合物许多后续复杂修饰的基础。

其他酶促环化:
除了Diels-Alder反应,其他类型的酶促环化反应也可能参与andiconin初始骨架的形成。这包括Michael加成后的一系列串联反应,或者通过碳正离子中间体诱导的电环化。例如,萜类合酶(TS)本身就是催化异戊烯基焦磷酸进行多步环化、重排和脱质子化反应形成复杂萜类骨架的典型酶。在andiconin的生物合成中,偶联产物可能含有一个或多个反应性官能团(如羟基、羰基或烯烃),这些官能团可以在特异性环化酶的作用下发生分子内亲核或亲电进攻,形成新的碳-碳键或碳-氧键,进而构建多环体系。这些酶通常对底物具有高度的特异性,能够精确控制反应的区域化学和立体化学,避免副反应的发生。

环化酶的功能与立体选择性调控:
环化酶(cyclase)在andiconin骨架形成中扮演着核心角色。它们的功能不仅仅是简单地促使环闭合,更重要的是精确调控反应的立体选择性。天然产物的立体异构体往往表现出截然不同的生物活性,因此立体选择性是决定其药理学特性的关键因素。环化酶通常通过以下机制调控立体选择性:

  1. 活性位点限制: 酶的活性位点通过精确的空间结构,将底物分子限制在特定的构象,使其只有在特定的取向才能发生反应,从而决定了最终产物的立体化学构型。
  2. 氢键网络: 酶活性位点中的氨基酸残基(如羟基、氨基、羧基等)与底物形成氢键,稳定过渡态,并引导反应沿着单一的立体化学路径进行。
  3. 辅因子作用: 某些环化酶可能需要金属离子(如Mg2+、Mn2+)或其他辅因子参与,这些辅因子可能直接参与催化,或通过改变酶的构象来影响立体选择性。
  4. 反应中间体控制: 酶能够稳定高活性的反应中间体(如碳正离子),并引导其在特定位置发生进一步反应,从而确保产物的区域选择性和立体选择性。

例如,在四环嵌合萜类抗生素的合成中,辅助控制的Diels-Alder反应被用于构建去氢萘亚基的对映选择性结构 28。而生物启发式全合成(bioinspired total synthesis)也常利用级联反应(cascade reaction)来一次性构建多个手性中心和环,例如某些andiconin衍生物的合成可能涉及分子间Diels-Alder反应、分子内普林斯反应和随后的环醚化反应 29。这些研究表明,酶在生物合成过程中能够精确控制反应路径,生成具有特定立体构型和手性的andiconin核心骨架。深入理解这些环化酶的催化机制和立体选择性调控原理,将为andiconin类化合物的仿生合成和结构改造提供重要的指导。

4. 后期修饰与结构多样性的分子机制

4.1 α-酮戊二酸依赖双加氧酶的催化功能

andiconin类天然产物具有高度的结构多样性,这在很大程度上归因于生物合成后期由各种修饰酶(特别是α-酮戊二酸依赖双加氧酶,αKGDDs)催化的复杂氧化反应。αKGDDs是一类铁依赖性非血红素酶,它们以α-酮戊二酸(αKG)为共底物,分子氧(O2)为氧化剂,催化多种氧化反应,包括羟基化、环氧化、脱羧氧化、以及更复杂的氧化重排等 30。andiconin生物合成途径中,αKGDDs在塑造最终产物结构和增加多样性方面发挥着关键作用。

α-酮戊二酸依赖双加氧酶的催化特性:
αKGDDs的催化机制通常涉及Fe(II)活性中心与αKG、底物和O2的结合。αKG脱羧后生成琥珀酸和CO2,同时O2被激活形成高价铁-氧物种(如Fe(IV)=O),该活性物种进而攻击底物分子,完成氧化反应。这种催化模式赋予了αKGDDs在生物合成中极大的功能多样性。

典型酶SptF、SptN的催化功能:
在andiconin的生物合成中,以Aspergillus sp. TJ23菌株为例,SptF和SptN是两类已鉴定出的关键αKGDDs,它们在andiconin衍生物(如emeridone F)的后期修饰中发挥重要作用:

  1. SptF:催化氧化重排与环氧化
    SptF是一种αKGDD,它被证实能够催化andiconin骨架的复杂氧化重排反应。在emeridone F的生物合成中,SptF负责将一个andiconin前体分子转化为具有独特五元环内过氧桥和七元环结构的新骨架。体外酶活实验显示,当andiconin前体与SptF、αKG、Fe(II)和抗坏血酸(作为还原剂维持Fe(II)状态)共同孵育时,能够高效地生成emeridone F。这种重排反应不仅涉及到碳骨架的断裂和重新连接,还可能伴随着碳-碳键或碳-氧键的形成。更重要的是,SptF还可能催化分子内部的环氧化反应,在andiconin骨架的特定双键上引入环氧基团,进一步增加了分子的复杂性和生物活性位点。这些反应的底物特异性极高,SptF能精准识别并作用于andiconin类化合物中特定的碳骨架位点。

  2. SptN:催化C-9位羟基化
    SptN是另一种在andiconin生物合成中发挥关键作用的αKGDD。该酶主要负责andiconin骨架C-9位的区域选择性羟基化。羟基化是天然产物生物合成中最常见的修饰之一,通常能改变分子的极性、溶解度和生物活性。SptN通过其αKGDD机制,将一个羟基精确地引入到andiconin骨架的特定碳原子上。体外酶活实验也证实了SptN的羟基化功能:将andiconin类底物与纯化的SptN蛋白、αKG、Fe(II)和抗坏血酸混合,可以观察到C-9位羟基化产物的生成。这种高度的区域选择性是αKGDDs的典型特征,也是其在生物合成中不可替代的原因。

底物特异性与共因子需求:
αKGDDs的底物特异性非常高,这意味着它们通常只识别并作用于具有特定结构特征的分子。这种特异性由酶活性位点的精细结构决定,能够精确地将底物置于Fe(II)活性中心附近,以便进行高效的氧化反应。除了Fe(II)和αKG,许多αKGDDs还需要抗坏血酸作为共因子。抗坏血酸在此类反应中通常扮演还原剂的角色,负责将可能被氧化为Fe(III)的铁中心还原回Fe(II)状态,从而维持酶的催化活性。一些αKGDDs对氧气具有相对较低的亲和力,这表明它们可能在体内作为氧气传感器发挥作用,影响细胞在不同氧气浓度下的代谢途径 30。

反应步骤与产物转化关系:
通过体外酶活实验结合高效液相色谱-质谱联用(LC-MS)和核磁共振(NMR)等分析技术,可以清晰地阐明SptF和SptN催化的反应步骤和产物转化关系。例如,通过设置不同的孵育时间点,可以追踪底物向产物的转化过程,鉴定中间产物,从而推断出详细的反应机制。这些实验不仅证实了特定基因编码的酶的功能,也为理解andiconin类化合物复杂结构如何逐步构建提供了分子层面的证据。同时,酶的底物特异性还决定了andiconin类化合物的结构多样性边界,即在不同菌株或相同菌株不同条件下,酶活性或表达量的微小差异都可能导致产物多样性的显著变化。

4.2 其他修饰酶的协同作用

andiconin类天然产物的结构多样性不仅来源于α-酮戊二酸依赖双加氧酶(αKGDDs)的催化作用,也离不开其他修饰酶的协同贡献,特别是细胞色素P450单加氧酶(CYP450s)和糖基转移酶(GTs)等。这些酶通过级联反应和精准修饰,进一步拓宽了andiconin类化合物的结构边界和生物活性谱。

细胞色素P450单加氧酶 (CYP450s) 的作用:
CYP450s是自然界中最普遍和多功能的氧化酶之一,广泛参与多种天然产物的生物合成,包括andiconin类化合物。它们通常催化区域选择性和立体选择性的羟基化反应,将氧原子插入到惰性的C-H键中,也能催化环氧化、去烷基化、碳-碳键裂解和氧化重排等多种反应 1313233。在andiconin的生物合成中,CYP450s可能在以下几个方面发挥作用:

  1. 羟基化: CYP450s可以将andiconin骨架上的特定碳原子羟基化,引入羟基官能团。这些羟基可以作为进一步糖基化、甲基化或其他修饰的位点,从而增加分子的极性、溶解度和生物活性。例如,在真菌嵌合萜类atlantinone B的生物合成中,多功能CYP450酶AtlD负责形成独特的内酯桥和16β-羟基 34。在其他嵌合萜类如dhilirane型嵌合萜类(DMs)的生物合成中,CYP450酶DhiH通过建立多样的C-C键和氧化反应,重塑了结构多样性 35。
  2. 环氧化: 某些CYP450s能够催化andiconin骨架中烯烃的双键形成环氧结构。环氧基团是高活性的官能团,可能参与随后的重排反应或与生物大分子相互作用,影响化合物的生物活性。
  3. 氧化重排与骨架修饰: 一些CYP450s具有催化复杂骨架重排的能力,例如形成新的环系或改变现有环的拓扑结构。例如,在platensimycin的生物合成中,CYP450 PtmO5通过立体选择性羟基化,引发醚键的形成 36。

CYP450s通常需要辅酶NAD(P)H以及一个还原酶伴侣(如细胞色素P450还原酶)来提供电子,以激活分子氧进行催化 3133。其底物特异性和区域选择性使其成为andiconin类化合物结构多样性的重要贡献者。

糖基转移酶 (GTs) 的作用:
糖基化是天然产物生物合成中另一种常见的后期修饰方式,它通过糖基转移酶将一个或多个糖分子(如葡萄糖、鼠李糖、木糖等)连接到底物的羟基、氨基、羧基或硫醇基团上。糖基化修饰对andiconin类化合物的结构多样性贡献主要体现在:

  1. 增加亲水性与溶解度: 糖基化可以显著增加andiconin类化合物的亲水性,改善其在水性环境中的溶解度,从而影响其在生物体内的吸收、分布、代谢和排泄。
  2. 改变生物活性: 糖基化往往会影响化合物与靶标分子的结合能力,进而改变其生物活性。例如,某些糖基可以增强活性,而另一些则可能降低活性或改变选择性。
  3. 提高稳定性: 糖基化有时能保护andiconin类化合物免受酶降解或非酶氧化,延长其在体内的半衰期。
  4. 提供新的识别位点: 糖部分本身可以作为分子识别的位点,参与特定的细胞间相互作用。

在andiconin的生物合成中,GTs可能将糖分子转移到骨架上的酚羟基、醇羟基或其他含氧官能团上,生成andiconin糖苷衍生物。每一种糖基转移酶通常对特定的糖供体(如UDP-葡萄糖)和糖受体(andiconin骨架上的特定位点)具有高度特异性。

多酶级联催化对结构多样性的贡献:
andiconin类化合物的复杂结构往往是多种酶级联催化的结果,即一个酶的产物作为下一个酶的底物,连续进行修饰。这种级联反应是产生高度结构多样性的主要机制:

  1. 修饰顺序的重要性: 不同的修饰酶作用顺序可能导致完全不同的最终产物。例如,先羟基化后环化与先环化后羟基化,可能会生成具有不同骨架和立体构型的andiconin衍生物。这种“顺序依赖性”是自然界创造结构多样性的有效策略。
  2. 修饰组合的多样性: andiconin骨架上的多个修饰位点可以被不同的酶以不同的组合方式进行修饰,例如一个andiconin分子可能同时被羟基化、糖基化和氧化重排。这种组合修饰极大地扩充了andiconin的衍生物库。
  3. 协同与竞争: 不同的修饰酶之间可能存在协同作用,例如一个酶引入的官能团为另一个酶提供了新的底物识别位点。但也可能存在竞争关系,即多个酶可以竞争相同的底物或修饰位点,最终产物的比例会受到酶的表达量、活性以及底物浓度的影响。

综上所述,CYP450s和GTs等其他修饰酶与αKGDDs协同作用,通过一系列精细且高度特异性的氧化、糖基化等反应,共同构建了andiconin类天然产物极其丰富的结构多样性。深入理解这些酶的催化机制和底物特异性,将为通过酶工程和合成生物学手段,定向生产和改造andiconin类化合物提供宝贵的指导。

5. 生物合成途径的异源重构与验证

5.1 异源宿主的选择与优化

andiconin类天然产物的生物合成途径复杂,涉及多个基因编码的酶协同作用。为了克服天然生产者产量低、遗传操作困难等问题,将andiconin的生物合成途径异源重构到模式微生物中已成为一种重要的研究策略。异源宿主的选择至关重要,它需要具备良好的遗传可操作性、高效的代谢能力以及能够提供目标产物前体的能力。目前,酵母、链霉菌和某些其他真菌是常用的异源宿主系统。

1. 酵母宿主系统(如酿酒酵母、毕赤酵母)
酵母,特别是酿酒酵母(Saccharomyces cerevisiae),因其具有真核细胞的蛋白质翻译后修饰能力、生长速度快、遗传背景清晰、基因组工程工具丰富以及安全级别高等优点,成为异源表达复杂天然产物(特别是植物源和真菌源产物)的首选宿主之一 3738。例如,酿酒酵母已成功用于多种萜类化合物、聚酮化合物和生物碱的异源合成。毕赤酵母(Pichia pastoris)和乳酸克鲁维酵母(Kluyveromyces marxianus)也因其高密度发酵能力和分泌表达能力而受到青睐 3739。

宿主改造策略旨在提高目标产物的产量,主要包括:

  • 敲除竞争途径: 许多宿主微生物自身具有复杂的代谢网络,会将底物或中间产物导向非目标产物的合成。通过基因组编辑技术,敲除与andiconin生物合成途径竞争前体或中间产物的内源基因,可以有效地将代谢流导向目标产物的合成 40。例如,敲除乙醇发酵途径或三羧酸循环相关基因,可以增加乙酰-CoA等前体的可用性。
  • 增强前体供应: andiconin的生物合成需要萜类和聚酮前体。针对酵母宿主,可以通过过表达MVA途径或MEP途径中的限速酶基因,以提高FPP等萜类前体的供应。对于聚酮前体,可以增强乙酰-CoA和丙二酰-CoA的生物合成,例如过表达乙酰-CoA羧化酶等关键酶。此外,辅因子(如NADPH、SAM)的充分供应也是提高产量的关键,可以通过工程化宿主代谢通路来优化辅因子合成和循环 4142。
  • 优化基因表达和元件: 选择合适的启动子、终止子和载体系统对异源基因的高效表达至关重要。利用强组成型启动子或诱导型启动子,可以控制andiconin生物合成途径中酶基因的表达水平。密码子优化也可以提高异源基因在宿主中的翻译效率。
  • 亚细胞定位优化: 某些生物合成酶可能需要在特定的亚细胞区室中发挥作用(如线粒体、内质网)。通过引入信号肽或靶向序列,将异源酶定位于最佳的催化环境中,可以提高酶的活性和途径效率。
  • 提高膜转运效率: 对于andiconin这种可能具有细胞毒性或在细胞内积累的产物,提高其跨膜转运或分泌能力,有助于降低细胞内毒性,并简化下游产物回收过程。

2. 链霉菌宿主系统
链霉菌(Streptomyces)作为一类著名的次级代谢产物生产者,其天然具有合成复杂聚酮和萜类化合物的生物合成能力。链霉菌具有强大的基因簇表达能力和高效的蛋白质折叠、修饰及分泌机制。将andiconin生物合成基因簇重构到链霉菌中,可以利用其内源的聚酮合酶、萜类合酶及丰富的修饰酶库,潜在地简化异源表达的复杂性。例如,在工程化大肠杆菌中通过过表达特异性异戊烯基转移酶XimB,成功生产了多种异戊烯基取代的芳香族化合物,这表明链霉菌源的酶在宿主中具有良好的活性 43。

3. 其他真菌宿主系统
除了酵母,其他一些真菌如曲霉菌(Aspergillus)、镰刀菌(Fusarium)等也因其天然的次级代谢产物合成能力而成为潜在的异源宿主。这些宿主可能本身就是andiconin的天然生产者,或与其亲缘关系较近,拥有相似的代谢背景和翻译后修饰机制。对这些真菌宿主进行基因组工程,例如通过同源重组或CRISPR/Cas9技术,敲除内源竞争途径或整合andiconin生物合成基因簇,有望实现目标产物的高效生产。利用微生物协同培养系统,将复杂的生物合成途径分割到不同的微生物中,也可以提高整体的合成效率,减少代谢负担 4445。例如,在酿酒酵母和谷氨酸棒杆菌的共培养系统中,通过将复杂的丹宁生物合成途径进行模块化分解,实现了产量的提升 45。

通过这些异源重构和宿主优化策略,研究人员能够有效地利用微生物细胞工厂来生产andiconin类天然产物,这不仅为新药开发提供了可持续的来源,也为探索新的andiconin衍生物创造了可能。

5.2 关键基因功能的实验验证

在andiconin生物合成途径的异源重构过程中,对关键基因功能的实验验证是至关重要的一步。这不仅能够明确特定基因在整个合成路径中的作用,也能为途径的优化和新型andiconin衍生物的发现提供坚实的基础。主要的验证方法包括基因敲除、过表达以及体外重组酶反应,并结合代谢产物分析技术(如LC-MS和NMR)来确认基因与产物的对应关系。

1. 基因敲除 (Gene Knockout) 验证:
基因敲除是一种通过删除或失活特定基因来研究其功能的方法。在andiconin的天然生产菌株或异源宿主中,敲除生物合成基因簇中的某个关键基因(如PKS、TS或负责特定后期修饰的酶基因)后,如果andiconin的产量显著下降甚至完全消失,或者出现新的中间产物累积,则可以推断该基因对于andiconin的生物合成是必需的,并可初步确定其在途径中的作用。例如,如果敲除一个PKS基因导致聚酮部分无法合成,最终andiconin的产量将受到影响。类似地,敲除αKGDD基因(如SptF或SptN)可能导致特定氧化修饰的andiconin衍生物消失,而其未修饰的前体则可能累积。通过比较敲除菌株与野生型菌株的代谢产物谱,可以有效地识别出该基因的功能以及其所催化的反应步骤。

2. 基因过表达 (Gene Overexpression) 验证:
与基因敲除相反,基因过表达是通过增加特定基因的拷贝数或利用强启动子来提高其在细胞内的表达水平,从而促进相关酶的生成。在异源宿主中,将andiconin生物合成基因簇中的单个或多个基因进行过表达,通常旨在提高目标andiconin产物的产量,或诱导检测到在野生型菌株中低丰度或未检测到的中间产物或旁路产物。如果过表达某个基因导致特定andiconin衍生物的产量增加,或者促进了特定修饰产物的生成,这进一步支持了该基因在相应步骤中的功能。例如,过表达限速酶基因可以解除途径中的瓶颈,提高整体产量。

3. 体外重组酶反应 (In Vitro Recombinant Enzyme Assays):
体外酶活实验是直接验证酶功能的最有力证据。通过在大肠杆菌或其他表达系统中纯化生物合成基因簇中编码的单个酶(如PKS、TS、αKGDDs、CYP450s等)的重组蛋白,并与化学合成或生物合成的前体底物在体外进行孵育,可以直接观察并分析反应产物。

  • 步骤: 将纯化的重组酶与预期的底物(如FPP、聚酮中间体、或andiconin早期衍生物)、辅因子(如NADPH、αKG、Fe(II))和共底物(如O2)混合,在适宜的缓冲体系和温度下孵育。
  • 分析: 反应结束后,通过HPLC、GC-MS或LC-MS等方法分离和鉴定产物。如果检测到预期的产物,即可确认该酶的催化功能、底物特异性和反应类型。例如,SptF和SptN的体外酶活实验就成功证明了它们在氧化重排、环氧化和羟基化中的作用。通过体外实验,还可以深入研究酶的动力学参数(Km, kcat)、最适反应条件以及抑制剂,为酶的理性改造提供数据。

4. 代谢产物分析(LC-MS和NMR)确认基因与产物的对应关系:
高效液相色谱-质谱联用 (LC-MS) 和核磁共振 (NMR) 光谱是代谢组学研究中不可或缺的分析技术,它们在确认基因功能和鉴定生物合成产物方面发挥着关键作用。

  • LC-MS: 具有高灵敏度、高分离度和高通量的特点,适用于复杂生物样品中多种代谢产物的定性、定量分析。
    • 在基因敲除和过表达实验中,LC-MS可以用于比较不同菌株的代谢谱,通过检测特定andiconin及其衍生物的出现或消失,以及中间产物的积累,来推断被敲除或过表达基因的功能。
    • 高分辨质谱(HR-MS)可以精确测定产物的分子量,结合碎片离子信息(MS/MS),提供化合物的结构片段信息,有助于初步鉴定未知产物。
    • 通过与已知andiconin标准品的保留时间(retention time)和质谱图进行比对,可以快速确认产物身份。
  • NMR: 提供分子中原子连接关系和立体构型信息,是确定化合物化学结构的金标准 464748。
    • 一维NMR (1H NMR, 13C NMR): 提供分子中氢原子和碳原子的化学位移、积分和耦合信息,用于推断官能团和骨架结构。
    • 二维NMR (COSY, HSQC, HMBC, NOESY): 提供原子间的空间关联信息。例如,HSQC(异核单量子相关谱)可以将1H信号与其直接相连的13C信号关联起来,HMBC(异核多键相关谱)则可以揭示跨越2到3个键的C-H偶联,对于确定复杂andiconin骨架的连接方式至关重要 49。NOESY(核奥弗豪泽效应谱)可以提供原子间的空间距离信息,帮助确定分子中的相对立体构型。
    • 通过对体外酶活产物或基因工程菌株积累的新产物进行NMR分析,可以明确其化学结构,从而最终确认特定基因所催化的反应以及产生的andiconin衍生物的准确结构。

综合运用基因操作策略和先进的代谢产物分析技术,可以系统、准确地解析andiconin生物合成途径中的每一个环节,为后续的代谢工程和药物开发奠定坚实的基础。

6. 研究挑战与未来方向

6.1 当前研究的局限性

尽管在andiconin类天然产物的生物合成研究中已取得了显著进展,但仍存在诸多挑战和局限性,阻碍了对该类化合物的全面理解和高效利用。这些局限性主要体现在以下几个方面:

  1. 未解析的酶功能和未知氧化反应的催化酶: andiconin类天然产物结构高度复杂,其多样性来源于一系列精密的酶促修饰,特别是氧化反应。然而,并非所有参与这些氧化反应的酶都已被明确鉴定和表征。例如,andiconin类化合物中可能存在多种未知的氧化反应,如某些特殊的羟基化、脱氢、环裂解或更为复杂的骨架重排,其催化酶的身份和具体催化机制仍是空白。虽然α-酮戊二酸依赖双加氧酶(αKGDDs)和细胞色素P450单加氧酶(CYP450s)已被证实参与andiconin的后期修饰,但它们通常代表一个庞大的基因家族,特定的同源物与特定反应的精确对应关系往往难以确定。缺乏这些关键酶的功能信息,使得我们无法全面理解andiconin结构多样化的全部机制,也限制了通过酶法改造或合成生物学手段获取新型衍生物的能力。

  2. 调控网络的复杂性(多基因协同调控机制): andiconin生物合成基因簇的表达受到精细且复杂的调控,远非单一转录因子所能解释。许多天然产物的生物合成涉及多基因协同调控,包括途径特异性转录因子、全局性调控因子以及染色质重塑等机制。目前对andiconin BGCs的调控研究仍处于早期阶段,对影响这些基因簇表达的全部转录因子、信号通路以及环境信号的响应机制尚不完全清楚。例如,碳源、氮源、磷酸盐浓度、pH值、温度、氧化应激以及宿主微生物发育阶段等因素,都可能通过复杂的级联信号通路影响BGCs的表达,但这些因素如何精确地协同调控andiconin的合成,以及关键调控节点的识别,仍然是一个巨大的挑战。这种调控机制的复杂性使得通过简单的基因过表达或敲除难以实现产量的显著提升或特定衍生物的精确调控。

  3. 异源表达效率低下: 尽管异源重构是获得andiconin类天然产物的有效策略,但目前异源宿主(如酵母或链霉菌)中andiconin生物合成途径的重构效率往往不高。这主要体现在目标产物产量低、中间产物积累以及异源酶活性不稳定等方面。原因可能包括:

    • 前体供应不足: 异源宿主内源代谢途径与andiconin生物合成途径争夺前体,导致所需萜类或聚酮前体供应受限。
    • 酶的表达与活性问题: 外源基因在异源宿主中可能存在密码子偏好性不匹配、蛋白质折叠错误、翻译后修饰缺失或降解等问题,导致异源酶表达量低或活性不足。
    • 途径中存在瓶颈: 生物合成途径中可能存在一个或多个限速步骤,某个酶的低效催化会限制整个途径的通量。
    • 产物毒性或转运问题: 某些andiconin类产物可能对宿主细胞具有毒性,导致细胞生长受抑制,或产物无法有效转运出细胞,导致细胞内积累并影响细胞活性。
    • 辅因子差异: 异源宿主中某些酶所需的特定辅因子可能无法得到充分供应或存在差异,影响酶的活性。

这些局限性使得andiconin类天然产物的研究和应用面临瓶颈,需要更深入的基础研究和创新技术来克服。

6.2 未来研究的重点方向

为了克服当前andiconin类天然产物研究的局限性并充分发掘其应用潜力,未来的研究应着重于以下几个关键领域:

  1. 新型α-酮戊二酸依赖酶的功能挖掘与机制解析: 鉴于α-酮戊二酸依赖双加氧酶(αKGDDs)在andiconin结构复杂化和多样性形成中的核心作用 3,未来研究应继续深入挖掘真菌基因组中潜在的新型αKGDDs。这包括通过生物信息学手段(如基因组挖掘、同源性分析)筛选与andiconin骨架修饰相关的新酶基因,并结合高通量体外酶活筛选方法,快速鉴定其底物特异性和催化反应类型 4。重点应放在那些催化复杂氧化重排、立体选择性羟基化、甚至环裂解等新颖反应的αKGDDs上。通过核磁共振(NMR)和高分辨质谱(HR-MS)等手段精确解析酶促产物结构,结合计算化学和分子动力学模拟,深入揭示这些酶的催化机制,特别是它们如何实现高度的区域选择性和立体选择性,这将为andiconin类化合物的理性设计和改造提供新的工具。

  2. 合成生物学技术的应用:

    • 基因组编辑技术(如CRISPR/Cas系统): 应充分利用CRISPR/Cas9等高效精准的基因组编辑工具,对andiconin天然生产者或异源宿主进行系统改造。这不仅可以实现对生物合成基因簇中单个基因的精确敲除、过表达或替换,还可以进行多基因位点的同时操作,例如敲除竞争途径、增强前体供应或引入新的修饰酶基因。通过构建系列工程菌株,可以系统地探索不同基因组合对andiconin产量和结构多样性的影响。
    • 代谢工程策略: 针对异源表达效率低的问题,需要运用先进的代谢工程策略优化宿主细胞的代谢流。这包括:
      • 前体供应优化: 精准调控乙酰-CoA、丙二酰-CoA和萜类前体(如FPP)的生物合成通路,通过过表达关键限速酶、阻断旁路途径或引入外源代谢模块,确保andiconin合成所需前体的充足供应。
      • 辅因子再生优化: 确保NADPH、ATP等辅因子的有效再生和分配,以满足生物合成途径对能量和还原力的需求。
      • 细胞工厂设计: 结合模块化设计理念,将andiconin生物合成途径分解为功能模块,并在不同的细胞区室或甚至不同的宿主细胞中进行优化,以减少代谢负担并提高整体合成效率。
      • 产物转运与回收: 探索提高andiconin产物跨膜转运效率的方法,例如过表达外排泵或工程化细胞膜通透性,以减少产物毒性并简化下游分离纯化。
  3. 结构多样性与生物活性的关联解析: 虽然andiconin类化合物已展现出广泛的生物活性,但其结构-活性关系(SAR)仍有待深入阐明。未来的研究应系统地构建andiconin及其衍生物的结构库,包括天然存在的化合物、酶法转化的产物以及通过合成生物学改造获得的非天然衍生物。随后,对这些化合物进行全面的生物活性筛选,包括抗菌、抗肿瘤、抗炎、免疫调节等,并结合分子对接、药效团模型等计算生物学方法,深入解析andiconin骨架上的关键官能团和立体结构对生物活性的影响。这不仅有助于发现具有更高活性、更好选择性或更低毒性的andiconin新药先导化合物,也能指导未来的合成生物学改造,实现定向创制具有特定生物学功能的andiconin衍生物。此外,研究andiconin类化合物的作用靶点和分子机制,也将为其在药物开发中的应用提供坚实的理论基础。

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参考文献

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Meroterpenoids are polyketide and terpenoid hybrid natural products with remarkable biological activities. Recent progress in fungal meroterpenoid biosynthesis has revealed several unusual enzyme reactions and novel enzymes, including unique terpene cyclization reactions by a novel family of membrane-bound terpene cyclases and post-cyclization modification reactions by oxygenases, such as non-heme iron-dependent dioxygenases, flavin adenine dinucleotide-dependent monooxygenases, and cytochrome P450 monooxygenases. They contribute to the structural diversification and increase in complexity of fungal meroterpenoids. Structure-function studies of these enzymes provide strategies for engineering the biosynthetic machinery to create novel molecular scaffolds for drug discovery.

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Bakuchiol is an emblematic meroterpene class of natural product extracted from . It has been reported to possess a broad range of biological and pharmacological properties and is considered as a leading biomolecule. It is highly desirable to devise an efficient approach to access bakuchiol and its chemical biology applications. In this review we provided structural features, isolation methods, various chemical routes and late-stage functionalization (LSF) approaches for bakuchiol and its derivatives. Moreover, this review encompasses the structure-activity relationships (SAR), value-added contributions and future perspectives of bakuchiol.

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The biosynthetic gene cluster of the fungal meroterpenoid emeridone F () was discovered in the genome of sp. TJ23, and its late-stage biosynthesis was elucidated by characterizing two α-ketoglutarate (αKG)-dependent dioxygenases, SptF and SptN. SptF catalyzes oxidative rearrangement followed by epoxidation, whereas SptN serves as the C-9 hydroxylase. Our study provides insight into the biosynthetic mechanisms of other andiconin ()-derived natural products, exemplifying the important roles of αKG-dependent enzymes in the structural complexifications.

4Functional analysis of an α-ketoglutarate-dependent non-heme iron oxygenase in fungal meroterpenoid biosynthesis.PubMed

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α-Ketoglutarate-dependent non-heme iron (α-KG NHI) oxygenases compose one of the largest superfamilies of tailoring enzymes that play key roles in structural and functional diversifications. During the biosynthesis of meroterpenoids, α-KG NHI oxygenases catalyze diverse types of chemical reactions, including hydroxylation, desaturation, epoxidation, endoperoxidation, ring-cleavage, and skeletal rearrangements. Due to their catalytic versatility, keen attention has been focused on functional analyses of α-KG NHI oxygenases. This chapter provides detailed methodologies for the functional analysis of the fungal α-KG NHI oxygenase SptF, which plays an important role in the structural diversification of andiconin-derived meroterpenoids. The procedures included describe how to prepare the meroterpenoid substrate using a heterologous fungal host, measure the in vitro enzymatic activity of SptF, and how to perform structural and mutagenesis studies on SptF. These protocols are also applicable to functional analyses of other α-KG NHI oxygenases.

5Structure-based engineering of α-ketoglutarate dependent oxygenases in fungal meroterpenoid biosynthesis.PubMed

Takayoshi Awakawa, Takahiro Mori, Richiro Ushimaru, et al.
Nat Prod Rep. 2023 Jan 25;40(1):46-61. doi: 10.1039/d2np00014h.
Non-heme iron- and α-ketoglutarate-dependent oxygenases (αKG OXs) are key enzymes that play a major role in diversifying the structure of fungal meroterpenoids. They activate a specific C-H bond of the substrate to first generate radical species, which is usually followed by oxygen rebound to produce cannonical hydroxylated products. However, in some cases remarkable chemistry induces dramatic structural changes in the molecular scaffolds, depending on the stereoelectronic characters of the substrate/intermediates and the resulting conformational changes/movements of the active site of the enzyme. Their molecular bases have been extensively investigated by crystallographic structural analyses and structure-based mutagenesis, which revealed intimate structural details of the enzyme reactions. This information facilitates the manipulation of the enzyme reactions to create unnatural, novel molecules for drug discovery. This review summarizes recent progress in the structure-based engineering of αKG OX enzymes, involved in the biosynthesis of polyketide-derived fungal meroterpenoids. The literature published from 2016 through February 2022 is reviewed.

6Aspermerodione, a novel fungal metabolite with an unusual 2,6-dioxabicyclo[2.2.1]heptane skeleton, as an inhibitor of penicillin-binding protein 2a.PubMed

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Rising drug resistance limits the treatment options infected by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). A promising solution for overcoming the resistance of MRSA is to inhibit the penicillin-binding protein 2a (PBP2a). A novel terpene-polyketide hybrid meroterpenoid, aspermerodione (1), characterized by an unusual 2,6-dioxabicyclo[2.2.1]heptane core skeleton, and a new heptacyclic analogue, andiconin C (2), were isolated and identified from the liquid cultures of endophytic fungus Aspergillus sp. TJ23. The structures and their absolute configurations of all chiral centers were elucidated via extensive spectroscopic analyses and electronic circular dichroism (ECD) calculations and determined via single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. Aspemerodione (1) was found to be a potential inhibitor of PBP2a, and work synergistically with the β-lactam antibiotics oxacillin and piperacillin against MRSA.

7Spiroaspertrione A, a Bridged Spirocyclic Meroterpenoid, as a Potent Potentiator of Oxacillin against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus from Aspergillus sp. TJ23.PubMed

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Bioassay-guided isolation of cultures of Aspergillus sp. TJ23 yielded a novel terpene-polyketide hybrid spiromeroterpenoid, spiroaspertrione A (1), bearing a unique spiro[bicyclo[3.2.2]nonane-2,1'-cyclohexane] carbocyclic skeleton, and a new biointermediate, andiconin B (2). Their structures and absolute configurations were elucidated by spectroscopic analyses, single-crystal X-ray diffraction, and electronic circular dichroism calculations. Compound 1 demonstrated potent resensitization of oxacillin against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by lowering the oxacillin minimal inhibitory concentration up to 32-fold from 32 to 1 μg/mL.

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is a non-starter lactic acid bacterium (LAB) of interest in the dairy industry for biopreservation. This study investigated the interference competition network and the specialized metabolites biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) content in this LAB in order to explore the relationship between the antimicrobial properties and the genome content. Network analysis revealed that the potency of inhibition tended to increase when the inhibition spectrum broadened, but also that several strains exhibited a high potency and narrow spectrum of inhibition. The strains with potent anti- were characterized by high potency and a wide intraspecific spectrum. Genome mining of 29 strains revealed the presence of 12 bacteriocin BGCs: four of class I and eight of class II, among which seven belong to class IIa and one to class IIc. Overall, eight bacteriocins and one nonribosomal peptide synthetase and polyketide synthase (NRPS-PKS) BGCs were newly described. The comparison of the antimicrobial properties resulting from the analysis of the network and the BGC genome content allowed us to delineate candidate BGCs responsible for anti- and anti- activity. However, it also highlighted that genome analysis is not suitable in the current state of the databases for the prediction of genes involved in the antimicrobial activity of strains with a narrow anti- activity.

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Man Su Kim, Da-Eun Jeong, Jun-Pil Jang, et al.
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BACKGROUND: Bacterial antimicrobial resistance poses a severe threat to humanity, necessitating the urgent development of new antibiotics. Recent advances in genome sequencing offer new avenues for antibiotic discovery. Paenibacillus genomes encompass a considerable array of antibiotic biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs), rendering these species as good candidates for genome-driven novel antibiotic exploration. Nevertheless, BGCs within Paenibacillus genomes have not been extensively studied. RESULTS: We conducted an analysis of 554 Paenibacillus genome sequences, sourced from the National Center for Biotechnology Information database, with a focused investigation involving 89 of these genomes via antiSMASH. Our analysis unearthed a total of 848 BGCs, of which 716 (84.4%) were classified as unknown. From the initial pool of 554 Paenibacillus strains, we selected 26 available in culture collections for an in-depth evaluation. Genomic scrutiny of these selected strains unveiled 255 BGCs, encoding non-ribosomal peptide synthetases, polyketide synthases, and bacteriocins, with 221 (86.7%) classified as unknown. Among these strains, 20 exhibited antimicrobial activity against the gram-positive bacterium Micrococcus luteus, yet only six strains displayed activity against the gram-negative bacterium Escherichia coli. We proceeded to focus on Paenibacillus brasilensis, which featured five new BGCs for further investigation. To facilitate detailed characterization, we constructed a mutant in which a single BGC encoding a novel antibiotic was activated while simultaneously inactivating multiple BGCs using a cytosine base editor (CBE). The novel antibiotic was found to be localized to the cell wall and demonstrated activity against both gram-positive bacteria and fungi. The chemical structure of the new antibiotic was elucidated on the basis of ESIMS, 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic data. The novel compound, with a molecular weight of 926, was named bracidin. CONCLUSIONS: This study outcome highlights the potential of Paenibacillus species as valuable sources for novel antibiotics. In addition, CBE-mediated dereplication of antibiotics proved to be a rapid and efficient method for characterizing novel antibiotics from Paenibacillus species, suggesting that it will greatly accelerate the genome-based development of new antibiotics.

10Co-Expression Analysis Reveals Differential Expression of Homologous Genes Associated with Specific Terpenoid Biosynthesis in .PubMed

Ji-Nam Kang, Jong-Won Han, So-Hee Yang, et al.
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Terpenoids are naturally occurring compounds involved in respiration, photosynthesis, membrane fluidity, and pathogen interactions and are classified according to the structure of their carbon skeleton. Although most terpenoids possess pharmacological activity, knowledge about terpenoid metabolism in medicinal plants is insufficient. () is a traditional herb that is widely used in East Asia and has been reported to contain various terpenoids. In this study, we performed a comprehensive transcriptome analysis of terpenoid metabolism in using two RNA sequencing platforms: Illumina and PacBio. The results show that the sterol, saponin, iridoid, and carotenoid pathways are active in . Sterol and saponin biosynthesis were mevalonate pathway dependent, whereas iridoid and carotenoid biosynthesis were methylerythritol 4-phosphate pathway dependent. In addition, we found that the homologous genes of key enzymes involved in terpenoid metabolism were expressed differentially and that the differential expression of these genes was associated with specific terpenoid biosynthesis. The different expression of homologous genes encoding acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase, mevalonate kinase, mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase, farnesyl pyrophosphate synthase, squalene synthase, and squalene epoxidase was associated with sterol and saponin biosynthesis. Homologous genes encoding 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase were also differentially expressed and were associated with carotenoid and iridoid biosynthesis. These results suggest that the biosynthesis of specific terpenoids can be regulated by the homologous of key enzymes involved in plant terpenoid metabolism.

11Secondary metabolism in Fusarium fujikuroi: strategies to unravel the function of biosynthetic pathways.PubMed

Slavica Janevska, Bettina Tudzynski
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2018 Jan;102(2):615-630. doi: 10.1007/s00253-017-8679-5. Epub 2017 Dec 4.
The fungus Fusarium fujikuroi causes bakanae disease of rice due to its ability to produce the plant hormones, the gibberellins. The fungus is also known for producing harmful mycotoxins (e.g., fusaric acid and fusarins) and pigments (e.g., bikaverin and fusarubins). However, for a long time, most of these well-known products could not be linked to biosynthetic gene clusters. Recent genome sequencing has revealed altogether 47 putative gene clusters. Most of them were orphan clusters for which the encoded natural product(s) were unknown. In this review, we describe the current status of our research on identification and functional characterizations of novel secondary metabolite gene clusters. We present several examples where linking known metabolites to the respective biosynthetic genes has been achieved and describe recent strategies and methods to access new natural products, e.g., by genetic manipulation of pathway-specific or global transcritption factors. In addition, we demonstrate that deletion and over-expression of histone-modifying genes is a powerful tool to activate silent gene clusters and to discover their products.

12Influence of Environmental Factors on the Production of Penitrems A-F by Penicillium crustosum.PubMed

Svetlana A Kalinina, Annika Jagels, Benedikt Cramer, et al.
Toxins (Basel). 2017 Jul 1;9(7):210. doi: 10.3390/toxins9070210.
Filamentous fungi produce a multitude of secondary metabolites, some of them known as mycotoxins, which are toxic to vertebrates and other animal groups in low concentrations. Among them, penitrems, which belong to the group of indole-diterpene mycotoxins, are synthesized by Penicillium and Aspergillus genera and exhibit potent tremorgenic effects. This is the first complex study of the penitrems A-F production under the influence of different abiotic factors, e.g., media, incubation time, temperature, pH, light, water activity, and carbon and nitrogen source as well as oxidative and salt stress. For this purpose, penitrems A-F were isolated from Penicillium crustosum cultures and used as analytical standards. Among the carbon sources, glucose supplemented to the media at the concentration of 50 g/L, showed the strongest inducing effect on the biosynthesis of penitrems. Among nitrogen sources, glutamate was found to be the most favorable supplement, significantly increasing production of these secondary metabolites. CuSO4-promoted oxidative stress was also shown to remarkably stimulate biosynthesis of all penitrems. In contrast, the salt stress, caused by the elevated concentrations of NaCl, showed an inhibitory effect on the penitrem biosynthesis. Finally, cheese model medium elicited exceptionally high production of all members of the penitrems family. Obtained results give insides into the biosynthesis of toxicologically relevant penitrems A-F under different environmental factors and can be utilized to prevent food contamination.

13Interaction of calcium responsive proteins and transcriptional factors with the PHO regulon in yeasts and fungi.PubMed

Juan F Martín
Front Cell Dev Biol. 2023 Aug 3;11:1225774. doi: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1225774. eCollection 2023.
Phosphate and calcium ions are nutrients that play key roles in growth, differentiation and the production of bioactive secondary metabolites in filamentous fungi. Phosphate concentration regulates the biosynthesis of hundreds of fungal metabolites. The central mechanisms of phosphate transport and regulation, mediated by the master Pho4 transcriptional factor are known, but many aspects of the control of gene expression need further research. High ATP concentration in the cells leads to inositol pyrophosphate molecules formation, such as IP3 and IP7, that act as phosphorylation status reporters. Calcium ions are intracellular messengers in eukaryotic organisms and calcium homeostasis follows elaborated patterns in response to different nutritional and environmental factors, including cross-talking with phosphate concentrations. A large part of the intracellular calcium is stored in vacuoles and other organelles forming complexes with polyphosphate. The free cytosolic calcium concentration is maintained by transport from the external medium or by release from the store organelles through calcium permeable transient receptor potential (TRP) ion channels. Calcium ions, particularly the free cytosolic calcium levels, control the biosynthesis of fungal metabolites by two mechanisms, 1) direct interaction of calcium-bound calmodulin with antibiotic synthesizing enzymes, and 2) by the calmodulin-calcineurin signaling cascade. Control of very different secondary metabolites, including pathogenicity determinants, are mediated by calcium through the Crz1 factor. Several interactions between calcium homeostasis and phosphate have been demonstrated in the last decade: 1) The inositol pyrophosphate IP3 triggers the release of calcium ions from internal stores into the cytosol, 2) Expression of the high affinity phosphate transporter Pho89, a Na+/phosphate symporter, is controlled by Crz1. Also, mutants defective in the calcium permeable TRPCa7-like of shown impaired expression of Pho89. This information suggests that CrzA and Pho89 play key roles in the interaction of phosphate and calcium regulatory pathways, 3) Finally, acidocalcisomes organelles have been found in mycorrhiza and in some melanin producing fungi that show similar characteristics as protozoa calcisomes. In these organelles there is a close interaction between orthophosphate, pyrophosphate and polyphosphate and calcium ions that are absorbed in the polyanionic polyphosphate matrix. These advances open new perspectives for the control of fungal metabolism.

14Combinatorial metabolic engineering of Yarrowia lipolytica for high-level production of the plant-derived diterpenoid sclareol.PubMed

Jiang Chen, Longzheng Huang, Bang-Ce Ye, et al.
Microb Cell Fact. 2025 May 16;24(1):110. doi: 10.1186/s12934-025-02744-7.
BACKGROUND: Sclareol, a diterpene alcohol derived from Salvia sclarea, is primarily used in the synthesis of ambrox, an alternative to the expensive spice ambergris. However, commercial production of sclareol from plant extraction is costly and environmentally problematic, limiting its scalability. Recent advances in synthetic biology have enabled the construction of efficient cell factories for sclareol synthesis, offering a more sustainable solution. RESULTS: In this study, we engineered Yarrowia lipolytica to produce sclareol by integrating genes encoding (13E)-8α-hydroxylabden-15-yl diphosphate synthase (LPPS) and sclareol synthase (SCS). Sclareol titers were further enhanced through the fusion of SsSCS and SsLPPS proteins, as well as multi-copy gene integration. To increase the precursor geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP), we overexpressed various geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthases (GGS1), resulting in significant accumulation of GGPP. Additionally, optimization of the mevalonate pathway, coupled with the downregulation of lipid synthesis and upregulation of lipid degradation, directed more acetyl CoA towards sclareol production. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, we reprogrammed the metabolism of Y. lipolytica by combinatorial metabolic engineering with a sclareol titer of 2656.20 ± 91.30 mg/L in shake flasks. Our findings provide a viable strategy for utilizing Y. lipolytica as a microbial cell factory to produce sclareol.

15Crystal Structure and Catalytic Mechanism of the cis-Eunicellane Cyclase AriE.PubMed

Fang-Ru Li, Qian Yang, Jingyi He, et al.
Chemistry. 2025 Jun 3;31(31):e202500012. doi: 10.1002/chem.202500012. Epub 2025 May 10.
Eunicellane diterpenoids, with over 360 known examples characterized by a cis- or trans-6/10-bicyclic carbon skeleton, exhibit diverse biological activities. To date, five eunicellane cyclases (ECs) have been reported: cis-ECs (Bnd4, CpDTS2 and EcTPS1) and trans-ECs (AlbS and MicA), yet the structural basis and molecular mechanisms governing their distinct cis- or trans-cyclization modes remain unsolved. Here, we present the crystal structure of a cis-EC AriE from Amycolatopsis arida, which catalyzes geranylgeranyl diphosphate to form cis-6/10-fused bicyclic benditerpe-2,6,15-triene (1) in aridacin biosynthesis. Through surface entropy reduction, we obtained the 1.87 Å resolution structure of AriE. Structure-guided mutagenesis identified W73 as a key regulatory hotspot controlling product diversity, with its variants generating diverse diterpene products. Y203A converted AriE into a highly specific (-)-(R)-cembrene A synthase. Our findings provide the first structural insights into this type of terpene synthase and demonstrate the feasibility of engineering EC variants for selective product formation.

16Insight into the mechanism of geranyl-β-phellandrene formation catalyzed by Class IB terpene synthases.PubMed

Shogo Iwakata, Kazuya Asada, Tomoyuki Nishi, et al.
Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2022 May 24;86(6):724-729. doi: 10.1093/bbb/zbac036.
Terpene synthase (TS) from Bacillus alcalophilus (BalTS) is the only Class IB TS for which a 3D structure has been elucidated. Recently, geranyl-β-phellandrene, a novel cyclic diterpene, was identified as a product of BalTS in addition to the acyclic β-springene. In the present study, we have provided insight into the mechanism of geranyl-β-phellandrene formation. Deuterium labeling experiments revealed that the compound is produced via a 1,3-hydride shift. In addition, nonenzymatic reactions using divalent metal ions were performed. The enzyme is essential for the geranyl-β-phellandrene formation. Furthermore, BalTS variants targeting tyrosine residues enhanced the yield of geranyl-β-phellandrene and the proportion of the compound of the total products. It was suggested that the expansion of the active site space may allow the conformation of the intermediates necessary for cyclization. The present study describes the first Class IB TSs to successfully alter product profiles while retaining high enzyme activity.

17Insights into taxadiene synthase catalysis and promiscuity facilitated by mutability landscape and molecular dynamics.PubMed

Siqi He, Ingy I Abdallah, Ronald van Merkerk, et al.
Planta. 2024 Mar 9;259(4):87. doi: 10.1007/s00425-024-04363-9.
Protein modeling, carbocation docking, and molecular dynamics along with structure-based mutability landscapes provided insight into taxadiene synthase catalysis (first step of the anticancer Taxol biosynthesis), protein structure-function correlations, and promiscuity. Plant terpenes belong to one of the largest and most diverse classes of natural products. This diversity is driven by the terpene synthase enzyme family which comprises numerous different synthases, several of which are promiscuous. Taxadiene synthase (TXS) is a class I diterpene synthase that catalyzes the first step in the biosynthesis pathway of the diterpene Taxol, an anticancer natural product produced by the Taxus plant. Exploring the molecular basis of TXS catalysis and its promiscuous potential garnered interest as a necessary means for understanding enzyme evolution and engineering possibilities to improve Taxol biosynthesis. A catalytically active closed conformation TXS model was designed using the artificial intelligence system, AlphaFold, accompanied by docking and molecular dynamics simulations. In addition, a mutability landscape of TXS including 14 residues was created to probe for structure-function relations. The mutability landscape revealed no mutants with improved catalytic activity compared to wild-type TXS. However, mutations of residues V584, Q609, V610, and Y688 showed high degree of promiscuity producing cembranoid-type and/or verticillene-type major products instead of taxanes. Mechanistic insights into V610F, V584M, Q609A, and Y688C mutants compared to the wild type revealed the trigger(s) for product profile change. Several mutants spanning residues V584, Q609, Y688, Y762, Q770, and F834 increased production of taxa-4(20),11(12)-diene which is a more favorable substrate for Taxol production compared to taxa-4(5),11(12)-diene. Finally, molecular dynamics simulations of the TXS reaction cascade revealed residues involved in ionization, carbocation stabilization, and cyclization ushering deeper understanding of the enzyme catalysis mechanism.

18Functional identification of valerena-1,10-diene synthase, a terpene synthase catalyzing a unique chemical cascade in the biosynthesis of biologically active sesquiterpenes in Valeriana officinalis.PubMed

Yun-Soo Yeo, S Eric Nybo, Amar G Chittiboyina, et al.
J Biol Chem. 2013 Feb 1;288(5):3163-73. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M112.415836. Epub 2012 Dec 14.
Valerian is an herbal preparation from the roots of Valeriana officinalis used as an anxiolytic and sedative and in the treatment of insomnia. The biological activities of valerian are attributed to valerenic acid and its putative biosynthetic precursor valerenadiene, sesquiterpenes, found in V. officinalis roots. These sesquiterpenes retain an isobutenyl side chain whose origin has been long recognized as enigmatic because a chemical rationalization for their biosynthesis has not been obvious. Using recently developed metabolomic and transcriptomic resources, we identified seven V. officinalis terpene synthase genes (VoTPSs), two that were functionally characterized as monoterpene synthases and three that preferred farnesyl diphosphate, the substrate for sesquiterpene synthases. The reaction products for two of the sesquiterpene synthases exhibiting root-specific expression were characterized by a combination of GC-MS and NMR in comparison to the terpenes accumulating in planta. VoTPS7 encodes for a synthase that biosynthesizes predominately germacrene C, whereas VoTPS1 catalyzes the conversion of farnesyl diphosphate to valerena-1,10-diene. Using a yeast expression system, specific labeled [(13)C]acetate, and NMR, we investigated the catalytic mechanism for VoTPS1 and provide evidence for the involvement of a caryophyllenyl carbocation, a cyclobutyl intermediate, in the biosynthesis of valerena-1,10-diene. We suggest a similar mechanism for the biosynthesis of several other biologically related isobutenyl-containing sesquiterpenes.

19Towards a comprehensive understanding of the structural dynamics of a bacterial diterpene synthase during catalysis.PubMed

Ronja Driller, Sophie Janke, Monika Fuchs, et al.
Nat Commun. 2018 Sep 28;9(1):3971. doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-06325-8.
Terpenes constitute the largest and structurally most diverse natural product family. Most terpenoids exhibit a stereochemically complex macrocyclic core, which is generated by C-C bond forming of aliphatic oligo-prenyl precursors. This reaction is catalysed by terpene synthases (TPSs), which are capable of chaperoning highly reactive carbocation intermediates through an enzyme-specific reaction. Due to the instability of carbocation intermediates, the proteins' structural dynamics and enzyme:substrate interactions during TPS catalysis remain elusive. Here, we present the structure of the diterpene synthase CotB2, in complex with an in crystallo cyclised abrupt reaction product and a substrate-derived diphosphate. We captured additional snapshots of the reaction to gain an overview of CotB2's catalytic mechanism. To enhance insights into catalysis, structural information is augmented with multiscale molecular dynamic simulations. Our data represent fundamental TPS structure dynamics during catalysis, which ultimately enable rational engineering towards tailored terpene macrocycles that are inaccessible by conventional chemical synthesis.

20Spata-13,17-diene Synthase-An Enzyme with Sesqui-, Di-, and Sesterterpene Synthase Activity from Streptomyces xinghaiensis.PubMed

Jan Rinkel, Lukas Lauterbach, Jeroen S Dickschat
Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 2017 Dec 18;56(51):16385-16389. doi: 10.1002/anie.201711142. Epub 2017 Nov 23.
A terpene synthase from the marine bacterium Streptomyces xinghaiensis has been characterised, including a full structure elucidation of its products from various substrates and an in-depth investigation of the enzyme mechanism by isotope labelling experiments, metal cofactor variations, and mutation experiments. The results revealed an interesting dependency of Mn catalysis on the presence of Asp-217, a residue that is occupied by a highly conserved Glu in most other bacterial terpene synthases.

21Structure and mechanism of assembly line polyketide synthases.PubMed

Thomas Robbins, Yu-Chen Liu, David E Cane, et al.
Curr Opin Struct Biol. 2016 Dec;41:10-18. doi: 10.1016/j.sbi.2016.05.009. Epub 2016 Jun 5.
Assembly line polyketide synthases (PKSs) are remarkable biosynthetic machines with considerable potential for structure-based engineering. Several types of protein-protein interactions, both within and between PKS modules, play important roles in the catalytic cycle of a multimodular PKS. Additionally, vectorial biosynthesis is enabled by the energetic coupling of polyketide chain elongation to the channeling of intermediates between successive modules. A combination of high-resolution analysis of smaller PKS components and lower resolution characterization of intact modules and bimodules has yielded insights into the structure and organization of a prototypical assembly line PKS. This review discusses our understanding of key structure-function relationships in this family of megasynthases, along with a recap of key unanswered questions in the field.

22Systematic domain swaps of iterative, nonreducing polyketide synthases provide a mechanistic understanding and rationale for catalytic reprogramming.PubMed

Adam G Newman, Anna L Vagstad, Philip A Storm, et al.
J Am Chem Soc. 2014 May 21;136(20):7348-62. doi: 10.1021/ja5007299. Epub 2014 May 9.
Iterative, nonreducing polyketide synthases (NR-PKSs) are multidomain enzymes responsible for the construction of the core architecture of aromatic polyketide natural products in fungi. Engineering these enzymes for the production of non-native metabolites has been a long-standing goal. We conducted a systematic survey of in vitro "domain swapped" NR-PKSs using an enzyme deconstruction approach. The NR-PKSs were dissected into mono- to multidomain fragments and recombined as noncognate pairs in vitro, reconstituting enzymatic activity. The enzymes used in this study produce aromatic polyketides that are representative of the four main chemical features set by the individual NR-PKS: starter unit selection, chain-length control, cyclization register control, and product release mechanism. We found that boundary conditions limit successful chemistry, which are dependent on a set of underlying enzymatic mechanisms. Crucial for successful redirection of catalysis, the rate of productive chemistry must outpace the rate of spontaneous derailment and thioesterase-mediated editing. Additionally, all of the domains in a noncognate system must interact efficiently if chemical redirection is to proceed. These observations refine and further substantiate current understanding of the mechanisms governing NR-PKS catalysis.

23Diene incorporation by a dehydratase domain variant in modular polyketide synthases.PubMed

Christian Hobson, Matthew Jenner, Xinyun Jian, et al.
Nat Chem Biol. 2022 Dec;18(12):1410-1416. doi: 10.1038/s41589-022-01127-y. Epub 2022 Sep 15.
Modular polyketide synthases (PKSs) are biosynthetic assembly lines that construct structurally diverse natural products with wide-ranging applications in medicine and agriculture. Various mechanisms contribute to structural diversification during PKS-mediated chain assembly, including dehydratase (DH) domain-mediated elimination of water from R and S-configured 3-hydroxy-thioesters to introduce E- and Z-configured carbon-carbon double bonds, respectively. Here we report the discovery of a DH domain variant that catalyzes the sequential elimination of two molecules of water from a (3R, 5S)-3,5-dihydroxy thioester during polyketide chain assembly, introducing a conjugated E,Z-diene into various modular PKS products. We show that the reaction proceeds via a (2E, 5S)-2-enoyl-5-hydroxy-thioester intermediate and involves an additional universally conserved histidine residue that is absent from the active site of most conventional DH domains. These findings expand the diverse range of chemistries mediated by DH-like domains in modular PKSs, highlighting the catalytic versatility of the double hotdog fold.

24Polyketide β-branching: diversity, mechanism and selectivity.PubMed

P D Walker, A N M Weir, C L Willis, et al.
Nat Prod Rep. 2021 Apr 28;38(4):723-756. doi: 10.1039/d0np00045k.
Covering: 2008 to August 2020 Polyketides are a family of natural products constructed from simple building blocks to generate a diverse range of often complex chemical structures with biological activities of both pharmaceutical and agrochemical importance. Their biosynthesis is controlled by polyketide synthases (PKSs) which catalyse the condensation of thioesters to assemble a functionalised linear carbon chain. Alkyl-branches may be installed at the nucleophilic α- or electrophilic β-carbon of the growing chain. Polyketide β-branching is a fascinating biosynthetic modification that allows for the conversion of a β-ketone into a β-alkyl group or functionalised side-chain. The overall transformation is catalysed by a multi-protein 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl synthase (HMGS) cassette and is reminiscent of the mevalonate pathway in terpene biosynthesis. The first step most commonly involves the aldol addition of acetate to the electrophilic carbon of the β-ketothioester catalysed by a 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl synthase (HMGS). Subsequent dehydration and decarboxylation selectively generates either α,β- or β,γ-unsaturated β-alkyl branches which may be further modified. This review covers 2008 to August 2020 and summarises the diversity of β-branch incorporation and the mechanistic details of each catalytic step. This is extended to discussion of polyketides containing multiple β-branches and the selectivity exerted by the PKS to ensure β-branching fidelity. Finally, the application of HMGS in data mining, additional β-branching mechanisms and current knowledge of the role of β-branches in this important class of biologically active natural products is discussed.

25Chemistry and biology of biosynthetic Diels-Alder reactions.PubMed

Emily M Stocking, Robert M Williams
Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 2003 Jul 14;42(27):3078-115. doi: 10.1002/anie.200200534.
Nature's repertoire of biosynthetic transformations has recently been recognized to include the Diels-Alder cycloaddition reaction. Evidence now exists that there are enzymes that mediate the Diels-Alder reaction in secondary metabolic biosynthetic pathways. 2002 marked the 100th anniversary of Alder's birth and 75 years since the discovery of the Diels-Alder reaction. It would appear that living systems discovered and made use of this ubiquitously useful ring-forming reaction eons ago for the construction of complex natural products. In this Review an overview is given of all of the known classes of natural products (polyketides, isoprenoids, phenylpropanoids, alkaloids) that have been speculated to arise by a biological Diels-Alder reaction.

26Total Synthesis of Atrachinenins A and B.PubMed

Sarah A French, Christopher J Sumby, David M Huang, et al.
J Am Chem Soc. 2022 Dec 21;144(50):22844-22849. doi: 10.1021/jacs.2c09978. Epub 2022 Dec 12.
Inspired by a new biosynthetic hypothesis, we report a biomimetic total synthesis of atrachinenins A and B that explains their racemic nature. The synthesis exploits an intermolecular Diels-Alder reaction between a quinone meroterpenoid and -β-ocimene, followed by intramolecular (3 + 2) cycloaddition and a late-stage aerobic oxidation. Divergent transformations of a simple model system gave several complex polycyclic scaffolds, while also suggesting a structure revision for atrachinenin C.

27A Pericyclic Reaction Cascade in Leporin Biosynthesis.PubMed

Anna Glöckle, Tobias A M Gulder
Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 2018 Mar 5;57(11):2754-2756. doi: 10.1002/anie.201800629. Epub 2018 Feb 8.
All roads lead to Rome: The biosynthesis of the leporins in Aspergillus sp. involves an unprecedented pericyclic reaction cascade. The enzyme LepI directs the periselectivity of a [4+2] cycloaddition towards a hetero-Diels-Alder reaction outcome to give the leporin molecular scaffold. The Diels-Alder side product is morphed into the leporin core structure by a LepI-catalyzed retro-Claisen rearrangement, culminating in efficient kinetic side product recycling.

28A modular synthesis of tetracyclic meroterpenoid antibiotics.PubMed

Raphael Wildermuth, Klaus Speck, Franz-Lucas Haut, et al.
Nat Commun. 2017 Dec 12;8(1):2083. doi: 10.1038/s41467-017-02061-7.
Stachyflin, aureol, smenoqualone, strongylin A, and cyclosmenospongine belong to a family of tetracyclic meroterpenoids, which, by nature of their unique molecular structures and various biological properties, have attracted synthetic and medicinal chemists alike. Despite their obvious biosynthetic relationship, only scattered reports on the synthesis and biological investigation of individual meroterpenoids have appeared so far. Herein, we report a highly modular synthetic strategy that enabled the synthesis of each of these natural products and 15 non-natural derivatives. The route employs an auxiliary-controlled Diels-Alder reaction to enable the enantioselective construction of the decalin subunit, which is connected to variously substituted arenes by either carbonyl addition chemistry or sterically demanding sp-sp cross-coupling reactions. The selective installation of either the cis- or trans-decalin stereochemistry is accomplished by an acid-mediated cyclization/isomerization reaction. Biological profiling reveals that strongylin A and a simplified derivative thereof have potent antibiotic activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

29Bioinspired Total Synthesis of Erectones A and B, and the Revised Structure of Hyperelodione D.PubMed

Liam J Franov, Jacob D Hart, Glenn A Pullella, et al.
Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 2022 May 2;61(19):e202200420. doi: 10.1002/anie.202200420. Epub 2022 Mar 14.
The field of biomimetic synthesis seeks to apply biosynthetic hypotheses to the efficient construction of complex natural products. This approach can also guide the revision of incorrectly assigned structures. Herein, we describe the evolution of a concise total synthesis and structural reassignment of hyperelodione D, a tetracyclic meroterpenoid derived from a Hypericum plant, alongside some biogenetically related natural products, erectones A and B. The key step in the synthesis of hyperelodione D forms six stereocentres and three rings in a bioinspired cascade reaction that features an intermolecular Diels-Alder reaction, an intramolecular Prins reaction and a terminating cycloetherification.

30Kinetic analysis of iron-dependent histone demethylases: α-ketoglutarate substrate inhibition and potential relevance to the regulation of histone demethylation in cancer cells.PubMed

Barbara Cascella, Liviu M Mirica
Biochemistry. 2012 Nov 6;51(44):8699-701. doi: 10.1021/bi3012466. Epub 2012 Oct 25.
The Jumonji C domain-containing histone demethylases (JmjC-HDMs) are α-ketoglutarate (αKG)-dependent, O(2)-activating, non-heme iron enzymes that play an important role in epigenetics. Reported herein is a detailed kinetic analysis of three JmjC-HDMs, including the cancer-relevant JMJD2C, that was achieved by employing three enzyme activity assays. A continuous O(2) consumption assay reveals that HDMs have low affinities for O(2), suggesting that these enzymes can act as oxygen sensors in vivo. An interesting case of αKG substrate inhibition was found, and the kinetic data suggest that αKG inhibits JMJD2C competitively with respect to O(2). JMJD2C displays an optimal activity in vitro at αKG concentrations similar to those found in cancer cells, with implications for the regulation of histone demethylation activity in cancer versus normal cells.

31Efficient heterologous expression of cytochrome P450 enzymes in microorganisms for the biosynthesis of natural products.PubMed

Baodong Hu, Xinrui Zhao, Endao Wang, et al.
Crit Rev Biotechnol. 2023 Mar;43(2):227-241. doi: 10.1080/07388551.2022.2029344. Epub 2022 Feb 6.
Natural products, a chemically and structurally diverse class of molecules, possess a wide spectrum of biological activities, have been used therapeutically for millennia, and have provided many lead compounds for the development of synthetic drugs. Cytochrome P450 enzymes (P450s, CYP) are widespread in nature and are involved in the biosynthesis of many natural products. P450s are heme-containing enzymes that use molecular oxygen and the hydride donor NAD(P)H (coupled enzymic redox partners) to catalyze the insertion of oxygen into C-H bonds in a regio- and stereo-selective manner, effecting hydroxylation and several other reactions. With the rapid development of systems biology, numerous novel P450s have been identified for the biosynthesis of natural products, but there are still several challenges to the efficient heterologous expression of active P450s. This review covers recent developments in P450 research and development, including the properties and functions of P450s, discovery and mining of novel P450s, modification and screening of P450 mutants, improved heterologous expression of P450s in microbial hosts, efficient whole-cell transformation with P450s, and current applications of P450s for the biosynthesis of natural products. This resource provides a solid foundation for the application of highly active and stable P450s in microbial cell factories to biosynthesize natural products.

32Conversion of viridicatic acid to crustosic acid by cytochrome P450 enzyme-catalysed hydroxylation and spontaneous cyclisation.PubMed

Jenny Zhou, Shu-Ming Li
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2021 Dec;105(24):9181-9189. doi: 10.1007/s00253-021-11674-4. Epub 2021 Nov 11.
Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s) are considered nature's most versatile catalysts and play a crucial role in regio- and stereoselective oxidation reactions on a broad range of organic molecules. The oxyfunctionalisation of unactivated carbon-hydrogen (C-H) bonds, in particular, represents a key step in the biosynthesis of many natural products as it provides substrates with increased reactivity for tailoring reactions. In this study, we investigated the function of the P450 enzyme TraB in the terrestric acid biosynthetic pathway. We firstly deleted the gene coding for the DNA repair subunit protein Ku70 by using split marker-based deletion plasmids for convenient recycling of the selection marker to improve gene targeting in Penicillium crustosum. Hereby, we reduced ectopic DNA integration and facilitated genetic manipulation in P. crustosum. Afterward, gene deletion in the Δku70 mutant of the native producer P. crustosum and heterologous expression in Aspergillus nidulans with precursor feeding proved the involvement of TraB in the formation of crustosic acid by catalysing the essential hydroxylation reaction of viridicatic acid. KEY POINTS: •Deletion of Ku70 by using split marker approach for selection marker recycling. •Functional identification of the cytochrome P450 enzyme TraB. •Fulfilling the reaction steps in the terrestric acid biosynthesis.

33Terpene hydroxylation with microbial cytochrome P450 monooxygenases.PubMed

Simon Janocha, Daniela Schmitz, Rita Bernhardt
Adv Biochem Eng Biotechnol. 2015;148:215-50. doi: 10.1007/10_2014_296.
Terpenoids comprise a highly diverse group of natural products. In addition to their basic carbon skeleton, they differ from one another in their functional groups. Functional groups attached to the carbon skeleton are the basis of the terpenoids' diverse properties. Further modifications of terpene olefins include the introduction of acyl-, aryl-, or sugar moieties and usually start with oxidations catalyzed by cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s, CYPs). P450s are ubiquitously distributed throughout nature, involved in essential biological pathways such as terpenoid biosynthesis as well as the tailoring of terpenoids and other natural products. Their ability to introduce oxygen into nonactivated C-H bonds is unique and makes P450s very attractive for applications in biotechnology. Especially in the field of terpene oxidation, biotransformation methods emerge as an attractive alternative to classical chemical synthesis. For this reason, microbial P450s depict a highly interesting target for protein engineering approaches in order to increase selectivity and activity, respectively. Microbial P450s have been described to convert industrial and pharmaceutically interesting terpenoids such as ionones, limone, valencene, resin acids, and triterpenes (including steroids) as well as vitamin D3. Highly selective and active mutants have been evolved by applying classical site-directed mutagenesis as well as directed evolution of proteins. As P450s usually depend on electron transfer proteins, mutagenesis has also been applied to improve the interactions between P450s and their respective redox partners. This chapter provides an overview of terpenoid hydroxylation reactions catalyzed by bacterial P450s and highlights the achievements made by protein engineering to establish productive hydroxylation processes.

34A Multifunctional Cytochrome P450 and a Meroterpenoid Cyclase in the Biosynthesis of Fungal Meroterpenoid Atlantinone B.PubMed

Bo-Wen Qi, Na Li, Bei-Bei Zhang, et al.
Org Lett. 2022 Apr 8;24(13):2526-2530. doi: 10.1021/acs.orglett.2c00684. Epub 2022 Mar 28.
The biosynthetic gene cluster of atlantinone B () was discovered in MT-40. A multifunctional cytochrome P450 (AtlD) encoded by the cluster is responsible for the formation of the unique lactone-bridged ring and the 16β-hydroxyl of atlantinone B, and a new terpene cyclase (AtlC) can unprecedentedly accept the demethylated substrate epoxyfarnesyl-DMOA () to generate three bicyclic meroterpenoids (-). This study paves the way for combinatorial synthesis of structurally diverse meroterpenoids for drug discovery.

35Target Discovery of Dhilirane-Type Meroterpenoids by Biosynthesis Guidance and Tailoring Enzyme Catalysis.PubMed

Zhaolun Sun, Mengyue Wu, Boyuan Zhong, et al.
J Am Chem Soc. 2024 Nov 6;146(44):30242-30251. doi: 10.1021/jacs.4c09298. Epub 2024 Oct 25.
Dhilirane-type meroterpenoids (DMs) featuring a 6/6/6/5/5 ring system represent a rare group of fungal meroterpenoids. To date, merely 11 DMs have been isolated or derived, leaving their chemical diversity predominantly unexplored. Herein, we leverage an understanding of biosynthesis to develop a workflow for discovery of DMs by genome mining, metabolite analysis, and tailoring enzyme catalysis. Twenty-three new DMs, including seven unprecedented scaffolds, were consequently identified. An α-ketoglutarate (α-KG)-dependent oxygenase DhiD was found to catalyze the stereodivergent ring contraction of dhilirolide D to form the dhilirane skeleton; while the cytochrome P450 DhiH reshaped the structural diversity by establishing diverse C-C bonds and oxidation. Crystallographic and mutagenesis experiments provide a molecular basis for the DhiD reaction and its stereodivergent products. Notably, DhiD exhibits substrate-controlled catalytic versatility in the chemical expansion of DMs through ring contraction, hydroxylation, dehydrogenation, epoxidation, isomerization, epimerization, and α-ketol cleavage. Bioassay results demonstrated that the obtained meroterpenoids exhibited anti-inflammatory and insecticidal activities. Our work provides insight into nature's arsenal for DM biosynthesis and the functional versatility of α-KG-dependent oxygenase and P450, which can be applied for target discovery and diversification of DM-type natural products.

36Cytochrome P450-Catalyzed Hydroxylation Initiating Ether Formation in Platensimycin Biosynthesis.PubMed

Jeffrey D Rudolf, Liao-Bin Dong, Xiao Zhang, et al.
J Am Chem Soc. 2018 Oct 3;140(39):12349-12353. doi: 10.1021/jacs.8b08012. Epub 2018 Sep 18.
Platensimycin (PTM) and platencin (PTN) are potent and selective inhibitors of bacterial and mammalian fatty acid synthases. The regio- and stereospecificity of the ether oxygen atom in PTM, which PTN does not have, strongly contribute to the selectivity and potency of PTM. We previously reported the biosynthetic origin of the 11 S,16 S-ether moiety by characterizing the diterpene synthase PtmT3 as a (16 R)- ent-kauran-16-ol synthase and isolating 11-deoxy-16 R-hydroxylated congeners of PTM from the Δ ptmO5 mutant. PtmO5, a cytochrome P450, was proposed to catalyze formation of the ether moiety in PTM. Here we report the in vitro characterization of PtmO5, revealing that PtmO5 stereoselectively hydroxylates the C-11 position of the ent-kaurane scaffold resulting in an 11 S,16 R-diol intermediate. The ether moiety, the oxygen of which originates from the P450-catalyzed hydroxylation at C-11, is formed via cyclization of the diol intermediate. This study provides mechanistic insight into ether formation in natural product biosynthetic pathways.

37Recombinant protein production in yeasts.PubMed

Diethard Mattanovich, Paola Branduardi, Laura Dato, et al.
Methods Mol Biol. 2012;824:329-58. doi: 10.1007/978-1-61779-433-9_17.
Recombinant protein production is a multibillion-dollar market. The development of a new product begins with the choice of a production host. While one single perfect host for every protein does not exist, several expression systems ranging from bacterial hosts to mammalian cells have been established. Among them, yeast cell factories combine the advantages of being single cells, such as fast growth and easy genetic manipulation, as well as eukaryotic features including a secretory pathway leading to correct protein processing and post-translational modifications. In this respect, especially the engineering of yeast glycosylation to produce glycoproteins of human-like glycan structures is of great interest. Additionally, different attempts of cellular engineering as well as the design of different production processes that are leading to improved productivities are presented. With the advent of cheaper next-generation sequencing techniques, systems biotechnology approaches focusing on genome scale analyses will advance and accelerate yeast cell factories and thus recombinant protein production processes in the near future. In this review we summarize advantages and limitations of the main and most promising yeast hosts, including Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pichia pastoris, and Hansenula polymorpha as those presently used in large scale production of heterologous proteins.

38Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a Heterologous Host for Natural Products.PubMed

Maximilian Otto, Dany Liu, Verena Siewers
Methods Mol Biol. 2022;2489:333-367. doi: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2273-5_18.
Cell factories can provide a sustainable supply of natural products with applications as pharmaceuticals, food-additives or biofuels. Besides being an important model organism for eukaryotic systems, Saccharomyces cerevisiae is used as a chassis for the heterologous production of natural products. Its success as a cell factory can be attributed to the vast knowledge accumulated over decades of research, its overall ease of engineering and its robustness. Many methods and toolkits have been developed by the yeast metabolic engineering community with the aim of simplifying and accelerating the engineering process.In this chapter, a range of methodologies are highlighted, which can be used to develop novel natural product cell factories or to improve titer, rate and yields of an existing cell factory with the goal of developing an industrially relevant strain. The addressed topics are applicable for different stages of a cell factory engineering project and include the choice of a natural product platform strain, expression cassette design for heterologous or native genes, basic and advanced genetic engineering strategies, and library screening methods using biosensors. The many engineering methods available and the examples of yeast cell factories underline the importance and future potential of this host for industrial production of natural products.

39Kluyveromyces marxianus: An emerging yeast cell factory for applications in food and biotechnology.PubMed

Ahasanul Karim, Natela Gerliani, Mohammed Aïder
Int J Food Microbiol. 2020 Nov 16;333:108818. doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2020.108818. Epub 2020 Aug 12.
Several yeasts, which are eukaryotic microorganisms, have long been used in different industries due to their potential applications, both for fermentation and for the production of specific metabolites. Kluyveromyces marxianus is one of the most auspicious nonconventional yeasts, generally isolated from wide-ranging natural habitats such as fermented traditional dairy products, kefir grain, sewage from sugar industries, sisal leaves, and plants. This is a food-grade yeast with various beneficial traits, such as rapid growth rate and thermotolerance that make it appealing for different industrial food and biotechnological applications. K. marxianus is a respiro-fermentative yeast likely to produce energy by either respiration or fermentation pathways. It generates a wide-ranging specific metabolites and could contribute to a variety of different food and biotechnological industries. Although Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the most widely used dominant representative in all aspects, many applications of K. marxianus in biotechnology, food and environment have only started to emerge nowadays; some of the most promising applications are reviewed here. The general physiology of K. marxianus is outlined, and then the different applications are discussed: first, the applications of K. marxianus in biotechnology, and then the recent advances and possible applications in food, feed and environmental industries. Finally, this review provides a discussion of the main challenges and some perspectives for targeted applications of K. marxianus in the modern food technology and applied biotechnology in order to exploit the full potential of this yeast which can be used as a cell factory with great efficiency.

40Combinatorial Metabolic Engineering Strategies for the Enhanced Production of Free Fatty Acids in .PubMed

Woo Sang Park, Kwang Soo Shin, Hyun Wook Jung, et al.
J Agric Food Chem. 2022 Nov 2;70(43):13913-13921. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c04621. Epub 2022 Oct 6.
In this study, we evaluated the effects of several metabolic engineering strategies in a systematic and combinatorial manner to enhance the free fatty acid (FFA) production in . The strategies included (i) overexpression of mutant thioesterase I ('TesA) to efficiently release the FFAs from fatty acyl-ACP; (ii) coexpression of global regulatory protein FadR; (iii) heterologous expression of methylmalonyl-CoA carboxyltransferase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase to synthesize fatty acid precursor molecule malonyl-CoA; and (iv) disruption of genes associated with membrane proteins (GusC, MdlA, and EnvR) to improve the cellular state and export the FFAs outside the cell. The synergistic effects of these genetic modifications in strain SBF50 yielded 7.2 ± 0.11 g/L FFAs at the shake flask level. In fed-batch cultivation under nitrogen-limiting conditions, strain SBF50 produced 33.6 ± 0.02 g/L FFAs with a productivity of 0.7 g/L/h from glucose, which is the maximum titer reported in to date. Combinatorial metabolic engineering approaches can prove to be highly useful for the large-scale production of FA-derived chemicals and fuels.

41Enzyme and Pathway Engineering for Improved Betanin Production in .PubMed

Jiawei Li, Lemin Wang, Nan Zhang, et al.
ACS Synth Biol. 2024 Jun 21;13(6):1916-1924. doi: 10.1021/acssynbio.4c00195. Epub 2024 Jun 11.
Betanin is a water-soluble red-violet pigment belonging to the betacyanins family. It has become more and more attractive for its natural food colorant properties and health benefits. However, the commercial production of betanin, typically extracted from red beetroot, faces economic and sustainability challenges. Microbial heterologous production therefore offers a promising alternative. Here, we performed combinatorial engineering of plant P450 enzymes and precursor metabolisms to improve the production of betanin in . Semirational design by computer simulation and molecular docking was used to improve the catalytic activity of CYP76AD. Alanine substitution and site-directed saturation mutants were screened, with a combination mutant showing an approximately 7-fold increase in betanin titer compared to the wild type. Subsequently, betanin production was improved by enhancing the l-tyrosine pathway flux and UDP-glucose supply. Finally, after optimization of the fermentation process, the engineered strain BEW10 produced 134.1 mg/L of betanin from sucrose, achieving the highest reported titer of betanin in a shake flask by microbes. This work shows the P450 enzyme and metabolic engineering strategies for the efficient microbial production of natural complex products.

42Engineering cofactor supply and recycling to drive phenolic acid biosynthesis in yeast.PubMed

Ruibing Chen, Jiaoqi Gao, Wei Yu, et al.
Nat Chem Biol. 2022 May;18(5):520-529. doi: 10.1038/s41589-022-01014-6. Epub 2022 Apr 28.
Advances in synthetic biology enable microbial hosts to synthesize valuable natural products in an efficient, cost-competitive and safe manner. However, current engineering endeavors focus mainly on enzyme engineering and pathway optimization, leaving the role of cofactors in microbial production of natural products and cofactor engineering largely ignored. Here we systematically engineered the supply and recycling of three cofactors (FADH, S-adenosyl-L-methion and NADPH) in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, for high-level production of the phenolic acids caffeic acid and ferulic acid, the precursors of many pharmaceutical molecules. Tailored engineering strategies were developed for rewiring biosynthesis, compartmentalization and recycling of the cofactors, which enabled the highest production of caffeic acid (5.5 ± 0.2 g l) and ferulic acid (3.8 ± 0.3 g l) in microbial cell factories. These results demonstrate that cofactors play an essential role in driving natural product biosynthesis and the engineering strategies described here can be easily adopted for regulating the metabolism of other cofactors.

43Combinatory Biosynthesis of Prenylated 4-Hydroxybenzoate Derivatives by Overexpression of the Substrate-Promiscuous Prenyltransferase XimB in Engineered E. coli.PubMed

Bei-Bei He, Xu-Liang Bu, Ting Zhou, et al.
ACS Synth Biol. 2018 Sep 21;7(9):2094-2104. doi: 10.1021/acssynbio.8b00070. Epub 2018 Aug 30.
Prenylated aromatic compounds are important intermediates in the biosynthesis of bioactive molecules such as 3-chromanols from plants, ubiquinones from prokaryotes and meroterpenoids from sponges. Biosynthesis of prenylated aromatic compounds using prokaryotic microorganisms has attracted increasing attention in the field of synthetic biology. In this study, we demonstrated that the production of 3-geranyl-4-hydroxybenzoic acid (GBA) and a variety of GBA analogues was feasible in a metabolically engineered E. coli by using XimB, a special prenyltransferase involved in the biosynthesis of xiamenmycin A in Streptomyces xiamenensis 318. XimB exhibits broad substrate specificity and can catalyze the transfer reaction of prenyl moieties with different carbon chain lengths to both the natural substrate 4-hydroxybenzoate (4-HBA) and to different substituted 4-HBA derivatives at C-2 and C-3. Feeding 4-HBA to an engineered E. coli equipped with a hybrid mevalonate pathway increased the production of GBA up to 94.30 mg/L. Considerable amounts of other GBA derivatives, compounds 4, 5, 6, 7, and 9, can be achieved by feeding precursors. The plug-and-play design for inserting C, C, and C prenyl diphosphate synthetases under the control of the T7 promoter resulted in targeted production of 3-dimethylallyl, 3-farnesyl-, and 3-geranylgeranyl-4-hydroxybenzoic acid, respectively. Furthermore, the valuable benzopyran xiamenmycin B was successfully produced in E. coli R7-MVA by coexpression of a complete biosynthetic gene cluster, which contains ximBDE.

44Engineered Microbial Consortium for Production of Sclareolide.PubMed

Dandan Tang, Xianliang Zheng, Yushuo Zhao, et al.
J Agric Food Chem. 2024 Sep 11;72(36):19977-19984. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.4c05506. Epub 2024 Aug 30.
Sclareolide, a natural product with bioactive and fragrant properties, is not only utilized in the food, healthcare, and cosmetics industries but also serves as a precursor for the production of ambroxide and some bioactive compounds. Currently, there are three primary methods for producing sclareolide: direct extraction from plants, chemical synthesis using sclareol as a precursor, and the biotransformation of sclareol. Here, we established a platform for producing sclareolide through a modular coculture system with and ATCC 20918. was engineered for sclareol biosynthesis from glucose, while enabled the production of sclareolide via sclareol biotransformation. To enhance the supply of sclareol, a recombinant yeast strain was constructed through metabolic engineering to produce 536.2 mg/L of sclareol. Further improvement of the coculture system for sclareolide production was achieved by incorporating Triton X-100 facilitated intermediate permeability, inoculation proportion adjustment, and culture temperature optimization. These refinements culminated in a sclareolide yield of 626.3 mg/L. This study presents a novel streamlined and efficient approach for sclareolide preparation, showcasing the potential of the microbial consortium in sustainable bioproduction.

45De novo biosynthesis of plant lignans by synthetic yeast consortia.PubMed

Ruibing Chen, Xianghui Chen, Yu Chen, et al.
Nat Chem Biol. 2025 Oct;21(10):1487-1496. doi: 10.1038/s41589-025-01861-z. Epub 2025 Mar 17.
Reconstructing the biosynthesis of complex natural products such as lignans in yeast is challenging and can result in metabolic promiscuity, affecting the biosynthetic efficiency. Here we divide the lignan biosynthetic pathway across a synthetic yeast consortium with obligated mutualism and use ferulic acid as a metabolic bridge. This cooperative system successfully overcomes the metabolic promiscuity and synthesizes the common precursor, coniferyl alcohol. Furthermore, combined with systematic engineering strategies, we achieve the de novo synthesis of key lignan skeletons, pinoresinol and lariciresinol, and verify the scalability of the consortium by synthesizing complex lignans, including antiviral lariciresinol diglucoside. These results provide a starting engineering platform for the heterologous synthesis of lignans. In particular, the study illustrates that the yeast consortium with obligate mutualism is a promising strategy that mimics the metabolic division of labor among multiple plant cells, thereby improving the biosynthesis of long pathways and complex natural products.

46NMR- and LC-MS/MS-based urine metabolomic investigation of the subacute effects of hexabromocyclododecane in mice.PubMed

Dezhen Wang, Ping Zhang, Xinru Wang, et al.
Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2016 May;23(9):8500-7. doi: 10.1007/s11356-015-5940-2. Epub 2016 Jan 20.
In the present study, both untargeted and targeted metabolomics approaches were used to evaluate the subacute effects of hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) on mice urine metabolome. Untargeted metabolomics based on (1)H NMR showed that HBCD exposure disturbed mice metabolism in both dosed groups, especially in high dosed group. The low-dose HBCD led to a decrease in alanine, malonic acid, and trimethylamine (TMA). High-dose HBCD-treated mice developed high levels of citric acid and 2-ketoglutarate, together with decreased alanine, acetate, formate, TMA, 3-hydroxybutyrate, and malonic acid. Targeted metabolomics for metabolic profiling of 20 amino acids identified alanine, lysine, and phenylalanine as significantly disturbed metabolites. These results indicated that subchronic exposure to HBCD caused a disturbance of mice metabolism, especially in TCA cycle, lipid metabolism, gut microbial metabolism, and homeostasis of amino acids, and the application of untargeted and targeted metabolomics combined with conventional toxicology approaches to evaluate the subacute effects of pollutants will provide more comprehensive information and aid in predicting health risk of these pollutants.

47Aqueous humor metabolite profile of pseudoexfoliation glaucoma is distinctive.PubMed

Ciara Myer, Leila Abdelrahman, Santanu Banerjee, et al.
Mol Omics. 2020 Oct 12;16(5):425-435. doi: 10.1039/c9mo00192a.
Pseudoexfoliation (PEX) is a known cause of secondary open angle glaucoma. PEX glaucoma is associated with structural and metabolic changes in the eye. Despite similarities, PEX and primary open angle glaucoma (POAG) may have differences in the composition of metabolites. We analyzed the metabolites of the aqueous humor (AH) of PEX subjects sequentially first using nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR: HSQC and TOCSY), and subsequently with liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) implementing isotopic ratio outlier analysis (IROA) quantification. The findings were compared with previous results for POAG and control subjects analyzed using identical sequential steps. We found significant differences in metabolites between the three conditions. Principle component analysis (PCA) and partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) indicated clear grouping based on the metabolomes of the three conditions. We used machine learning algorithms and a percentage set of the data to train, and utilized a different or larger dataset to test whether a trained model can correctly classify the test dataset as PEX, POAG or control. Three different algorithms: linear support vector machines (SVM), deep learning, and a neural network were used for prediction. They all accurately classified the test datasets based on the AH metabolome of the sample. We next compared the AH metabolome with known AH and TM proteomes and genomes in order to understand metabolic pathways that may contribute to alterations in the AH metabolome in PEX. We found potential protein/gene pathways associated with observed significant metabolite changes in PEX.

48Carbon Isotopomer Analysis with Non-Unifom Sampling HSQC NMR for Cell Extract and Live Cell Metabolomics Studies.PubMed

Sujin Lee, He Wen, Yong Jin An, et al.
Anal Chem. 2017 Jan 17;89(2):1078-1085. doi: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b02107. Epub 2016 Dec 27.
Isotopomer analysis using either C NMR or LC/GC-MS has been an invaluable tool for studying metabolic activities in a variety of systems. Traditional challenges are, however, that C-detected NMR is insensitive despite its high resolution, and that MS-based techniques cannot easily differentiate positional isotopomers. In addition, current C NMR or LC/GC-MS has limitations in detecting metabolites in living cells. Here, we describe a non-uniform sampling-based 2D heteronuclear single quantum coherence (NUS HSQC) approach to measure metabolic isotopomers in both cell lysates and living cells. The method provides a high resolution that can resolve multiplet structures in the C dimension while retaining the sensitivity of the H-indirect detection. The approach was tested in L1210 mouse leukemia cells labeled with C acetate by measuring NUS HSQC with 25% sampling density. The results gave a variety of metabolic information such as (1) higher usage of acetate in acetylation pathway than aspartate synthesis, (2) TCA cycle efficiency changes upon the inhibition of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation by pharmacological agents, and (3) position-dependent isotopomer patterns in fatty acids in living cells. In addition, we were able to detect fatty acids along with other hydrophilic molecules in one sample of live cells without extraction. Overall, the high sensitivity and resolution along with the application to live cells should make the NUS HSQC approach attractive in studying carbon flux information in metabolic studies.

49A Plastic Biosynthetic Pathway for the Production of Structurally Distinct Microbial Sunscreens.PubMed

Sıla Arsın, Endrews Delbaje, Jouni Jokela, et al.
ACS Chem Biol. 2023 Sep 15;18(9):1959-1967. doi: 10.1021/acschembio.3c00112. Epub 2023 Aug 21.
Mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) are small, colorless, and water-soluble secondary metabolites. They have high molar extinction coefficients and a unique UV radiation absorption mechanism that make them effective sunscreens. Here we report the discovery of two structurally distinct MAAs from the lichen symbiont strain sp. UHCC 0926. We identified these MAAs as aplysiapalythine E (CHNO) and tricore B (CHNO) using a combination of high-resolution liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HR-LCMS) analysis and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. We obtained a 8.3 Mb complete genome sequence of sp. UHCC 0926 to gain insights into the genetic basis for the biosynthesis of these two structural distinct MAAs. We identified MAA biosynthetic genes encoded in three separate locations of the genome. The organization of biosynthetic enzymes in sp. UHCC 0926 necessitates a branched biosynthetic pathway to produce two structurally distinct MAAs. We detected the presence of such discontiguous MAA biosynthetic gene clusters in 12% of the publicly available complete cyanobacterial genomes. Bioinformatic analysis of public MAA biosynthetic gene clusters suggests that they are subject to rapid evolutionary processes resulting in highly plastic biosynthetic pathways that are responsible for the chemical diversity in this family of microbial sunscreens.