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  5. 预制菜健康性评估及近年研究进展

预制菜健康性评估及近年研究进展

深度研究匿名用户发表于 2025年09月17日 23:320阅读
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1. 预制菜的定义、分类与消费现状

1.1 预制菜的核心定义与分类标准

预制菜，广义上是指以农、畜、禽、水产品为主要原料，配以各种辅料，经预加工（如分切、洗净、腌制、烹熟等）制成，并进行预包装的成品或半成品菜肴。其核心特征在于“预加工”和“预包装”，旨在简化消费者烹饪步骤，提升便利性。

在理解预制菜的分类时，国际上常用的NOVA食品分类体系提供了一个重要的视角来评估食品的加工程度及其对健康的影响 1。NOVA分类体系将食品分为四大类：

  1. 未加工或最低限度加工食品：包括新鲜水果、蔬菜、肉类、鱼类、蛋类等，以及经过简单加工（如干燥、冷藏、研磨）但不添加任何额外物质的食品。
  2. 加工烹饪配料：如植物油、糖、盐等，这些通常不是单独食用，而是用于烹饪。
  3. 加工食品：通过加入盐、糖、油或其他加工烹饪配料，对第1类食品进行简单的加工（如罐装蔬菜、加盐的坚果、新鲜面包等）。
  4. 超加工食品 (Ultra-Processed Foods, UPF)：这是预制菜中需要特别关注的一类。UPF通常由食品工业通过多步加工制成，其配方中往往含有天然食品中不常见的物质（如氢化油、改性淀粉、人工香料、色素、乳化剂、甜味剂等）以及从食品中提取的成分（如酪蛋白、乳清蛋白、麦芽糊精等）1。许多预制菜，尤其是那些为了延长保质期、改善口感或提供即食便利性而添加多种食品添加剂的，通常属于超加工食品范畴。

具体到预制菜的加工程度，可以进一步细分为：

  • 即食预制菜：无需任何烹饪或加热即可直接食用的产品，如部分沙拉、卤味熟食等。这类产品通常经过完全烹熟和调味。
  • 即热预制菜：需要简单加热即可食用的产品，如微波米饭、加热即食的菜肴包等。这些产品通常已预先烹熟，通过加热恢复其风味和温度。
  • 即烹预制菜：需要经过简单烹饪步骤（如炒、煮、炖）才能食用的半成品，如切配好的净菜、腌制好的肉类等。这类产品虽然省去了备菜的繁琐，但仍保留了部分烹饪过程。

预制菜与超加工食品之间的关联是评价其健康性的关键。并非所有预制菜都是超加工食品，但许多为了方便、口感和保质期而深度加工的预制菜，由于其成分复杂、添加剂种类繁多，确实符合UPF的定义 1。例如，高盐、高糖、高脂肪且含有多种食品添加剂的方便面、冷冻披萨、工业化生产的速冻饺子等，均被认为是典型的UPF。而一些仅经过简单分切、清洗、预包装的净菜，则属于未加工或最低限度加工食品。因此，对预制菜的健康性评估，需要综合考虑其具体的加工工艺、配料成分以及在NOVA分类体系中的位置。

1.2 全球及主要地区预制菜消费趋势

近年来，预制菜市场在全球范围内呈现爆发式增长，特别是在2020年至2025年期间，受疫情影响及消费者生活方式转变的推动，其普及率和接受度显著提升。全球预制菜市场规模预计将持续扩大，根据行业分析，2023年全球预制菜市场已突破万亿美元大关，并预测未来几年将保持高速增长态势，年复合增长率（CAGR）有望达到两位数。

中国市场：作为全球最大的预制菜消费市场之一，中国预制菜产业发展迅猛。2020年以来，中国预制菜市场规模从不足3000亿元人民币迅速增长，并在2022年突破4000亿元，预计到2026年市场规模有望达到万亿元级别。消费场景的拓展是其增长的重要驱动力。家庭消费是主力军，尤其是年轻上班族和“Z世代”群体，他们追求便捷高效的生活方式，预制菜满足了其对烹饪时间短、操作简单、口味多样化的需求。此外，疫情期间居家隔离政策也显著提升了家庭对预制菜的依赖。职场消费方面，写字楼周边的便利店和餐饮店也开始提供即热或即食的预制菜品，满足上班族的午餐需求。老年人市场也逐渐被关注，由于身体机能下降或独居，预制菜能提供营养均衡且易于准备的餐食。儿童餐预制菜也开始崭露头角，但家长对其健康性、添加剂及营养成分更为关注。

欧美市场：在欧洲和北美地区，预制菜（Ready Meals/Convenience Foods）早已是成熟的消费品类。以美国为例，其预制菜市场规模庞大且稳定增长，消费者对健康、有机和植物基预制菜的需求日益增长。超市货架上琳琅满目的冷冻餐、即食沙拉、预切蔬菜包等已成为日常。在消费人群上，双职工家庭、单身人士以及老年人是主要消费群体。尤其在疫情期间，线上预制菜订阅服务和送货上门模式也获得了显著增长。欧洲市场，如英国、德国和法国，同样表现出强劲增长，消费者对可持续、低碳足迹的预制菜产品表现出更高的兴趣。

日本市场：日本作为便利食品的先行者，其预制菜（惣菜, Souzai）市场高度发达且品类丰富。便利店、超市和百货商店的熟食区提供了大量即食或即热的预制菜。日本消费者对食品的精细化、营养均衡和食品安全有极高要求，这推动了日本预制菜产业在品质和口味上的不断升级。其主要消费场景涵盖了日常家庭用餐、学生和上班族的便当、以及老年人的护理餐等。日本市场在个性化和功能性预制菜方面也有显著发展，例如针对特定健康需求（如控盐、低脂）的预制菜。

总体而言，全球预制菜消费趋势呈现以下特点：

  • 便捷性驱动：快节奏的生活方式和烹饪时间的缩短是核心驱动力。
  • 品类多元化：从传统的速冻米面制品到中式菜肴、西式简餐、日式料理等，品类日益丰富。
  • 健康化趋势：消费者对预制菜的营养、成分、添加剂关注度提升，促使行业向“少添加、低脂、低盐、高纤维”方向发展。
  • 线上线下融合：传统零售渠道与电商平台、外卖平台深度融合，提供更便捷的购买方式。
  • 定制化与功能化：针对特定人群（如健身人群、慢性病患者）或需求（如减脂、增肌）的定制化预制菜市场潜力巨大。

2. 预制菜的营养成分与健康风险评估

2.1 关键营养指标的实测与对比分析

预制菜的营养成分是评估其健康性的核心要素。多项研究对比了预制菜与家庭烹饪餐食在热量、脂肪、盐、膳食纤维等关键营养指标上的差异，发现预制菜在某些方面存在显著的营养风险。

一项针对希腊超市即食餐的调查显示，在228份样本中，主菜有72.1%的卡路里低于600千卡/份，但只有12.6%的盐含量低于限值（1.8克），48.1%的脂肪含量低于限值（21克）。而沙拉和开胃菜中，仅28.9%的卡路里符合标准（低于250千卡），高达82.2%的盐含量超过限值（0.75克），仅22.2%的脂肪含量符合标准（低于9克）2。这表明，希腊市场的即食预制餐普遍存在高盐问题，部分产品脂肪含量也偏高。

澳大利亚的一项研究也指出，预制菜通常是高钠产品，过量的钠摄入会增加慢性疾病的风险3。该研究分析了631份即食餐，发现只有49%的产品符合健康食品合作组织（HFP）的钠减排目标（每100克低于250毫克）。虽然带有健康星级评级（HSR）的预制菜钠含量普遍较低，且HSR越高钠含量越低（P < 0.001），但这仍突出显示了预制菜普遍存在的钠含量过高问题3。英国的一项横断面分析也得出类似结论，发现超市预制菜整体上饱和脂肪和盐含量较高，而糖含量较低4。尽管其中有五分之一的餐食在脂肪、饱和脂肪、盐和糖方面含量较低（包括三分之二的“更健康”餐食），但整体而言，其营养状况并不理想4。

与之形成对比的是，家庭烹饪的餐食通常能更好地控制营养成分。例如，日本2015年全国健康与营养调查显示，频繁食用非家庭制备餐食（包括外食和外卖，可视为部分预制菜的消费场景）与膳食纤维、维生素C以及铁、镁、钾等矿物质摄入不足显著相关。这些人群蔬菜摄入量较低，而脂肪和油的摄入量较高5。

钠摄入量是预制菜健康风险评估中的一个关键指标。世界卫生组织（WHO）建议成人每日钠摄入量不超过2克（相当于5克盐），而许多预制菜，尤其是即食或即热类产品，往往容易超标67。高钠饮食是高血压和心血管疾病的主要风险因素，还与胃癌、肾结石、骨密度降低和骨质疏松症的风险增加有关6。通过对全球膳食钠和钾摄入指南的比较，可以看出世界卫生组织、美国心脏协会等机构均设定了较低的钠摄入目标7。然而，预制菜为追求口感和延长保质期，往往使用较多的盐，使得消费者在不知不觉中摄入过量钠。

总体而言，现有研究表明，预制菜在方便快捷的同时，普遍存在高钠、高脂肪（尤其是饱和脂肪）以及膳食纤维、维生素和矿物质含量不足的问题。尽管部分“健康”或“低脂低盐”标签的产品有所改善，但消费者在选择预制菜时仍需警惕其潜在的营养失衡风险，并参考膳食指南进行合理选择。

2.2 加工工艺对营养保留的影响

预制菜的加工工艺对其营养成分的保留起着决定性作用。不同的加工方法，如热加工、高压处理（HPP）、冷冻干燥等，对维生素、抗氧化物质等营养素的稳定性影响各异。

热加工是最常见的食品加工方式，包括蒸煮、油炸、炖煮、烘烤等。高温往往会加速某些热敏性营养素的降解。

  • 维生素：维生素C是典型的热敏性维生素，在热加工过程中极易流失。研究表明，在挤压加工（extrusion）过程中，维生素A、维生素E、维生素C、维生素B1和叶酸等维生素的保留率较低，而维生素B2、B6、B12、烟酸和泛酸钙则相对稳定8。豆类在烹饪和蒸煮等热处理后，氨基酸、多酚、脂肪酸、糖和维生素的含量都会受到显著影响，其中氨基酸受影响最大，多酚次之9。然而，并非所有热加工都会完全破坏维生素，例如，冷冻的果蔬在储存过程中维生素C的含量与新鲜产品相当，甚至在某些情况下更高10。而对于十字花科蔬菜中的萝卜硫素及其前体硫代葡萄糖苷，短时间的微波或蒸煮可以促进其生物转化，但长时间的煮沸和焯水则会导致大量流失11。
  • 抗氧化物质：多酚类物质在热加工过程中也会受到影响，但具体影响程度取决于加工条件和食物基质。例如，在制备非离心蔗糖（一种甘蔗衍生品）的传统热加工过程中，多酚、氨基酸、维生素和矿物质等生物活性化合物的含量会显著下降，这主要是由于不受控制的加工温度所致12。

高压处理 (High Pressure Processing, HPP) 是一种非热加工技术，通过施加高静水压（通常为100-600 MPa）来对食品进行巴氏杀菌，同时最大限度地保留食品的感官和营养品质131415。HPP被认为是生产近乎新鲜产品的理想技术，因为它能更好地保留原材料中的营养物质、维生素、矿物质和生物活性成分14。HPP对热敏性维生素（如维生素C）和抗氧化物质的破坏远小于传统热加工，因此有助于维持预制菜的营养价值15。例如，HPP技术在水果、蔬菜和新鲜草本植物的均质化产品中应用广泛，能够提供相对稳定和安全的营养来源14。

冷冻干燥 (Freeze-Drying) 是一种通过升华去除水分的干燥技术，通常被认为能最大程度地保留食品的营养成分、结构和风味16。冷冻干燥后的食品（如胡萝卜废弃物提取物的微囊）在储存过程中能更好地保持类胡萝卜素的稳定性，其降解动力学研究显示，冷冻干燥比喷雾干燥更能有效防止类胡萝卜素降解17。一项对一种不常见水果的分析发现，冷冻干燥能更好地保留水分、蛋白质、碳水化合物和还原糖含量，并维持更好的颜色品质，而总酚类化合物和总黄酮类化合物的保留效果则取决于所使用的提取溶剂16。

其他加工技术：

  • 超声波处理：一项针对橙汁的研究表明，高强度超声波处理（20 kHz，39.4 W/cm²）在一定处理时间内，对总多酚、维生素C、有机酸和类胡萝卜素的含量以及亲脂性抗氧化能力和果汁颜色没有显著影响。但亲水性抗氧化活性和叶黄素含量会随超声处理时间的增加而显著增加18。
  • 冷冻储存：冷冻是许多预制菜常用的储存方式。研究表明，冷冻储存对水果和蔬菜中维生素C、核黄素和α-生育酚的保留效果良好，甚至在某些情况下高于新鲜产品。然而，β-胡萝卜素在某些冷冻蔬菜（如豌豆、胡萝卜和菠菜）中会显著下降10。此外，封装的β-胡萝卜素在冷冻干燥体系中的稳定性研究显示，尽管其作为维生素A前体具有重要健康益处，但由于其多重共轭双键结构，极易氧化，因此封装技术和冷冻干燥有助于提高其稳定性19。

结合2022年希腊即食餐研究中脂肪/盐超标的案例，可以发现加工工艺在改善营养状况方面的局限性。即使是经过相对温和的加工，如果配方设计不当，仍可能导致高脂肪、高盐的问题。这些案例并非直接归因于某种加工技术对营养素的破坏，而是体现了预制菜生产商在追求口感、风味和保质期时，对配料选择和添加量的倾向性，即为了迎合大众口味而倾向于使用更多的盐和脂肪，而非通过优化加工工艺来提升营养价值。因此，加工工艺的选择固然重要，但预制菜的整体营养质量更取决于生产商在配方开发阶段的营养考量和添加剂的使用。

3. 食品添加剂与潜在健康影响

3.1 常见添加剂的安全性争议

预制菜中为改善口感、延长保质期或增强产品稳定性，常会添加多种食品添加剂。然而，部分常见添加剂的安全性近年来引起了广泛争议，特别是它们对肠道健康和代谢功能的影响。

卡拉胶 (Carrageenan) 是一种常用的增稠剂和乳化剂，广泛应用于乳制品、肉制品和预制食品中。尽管食品级卡拉胶（E407和E407a）被认为是安全的，但其潜在的健康风险持续受到关注。2021年的一项研究指出，口服摄入半精制卡拉胶（E407a）两周后，大鼠的肠道形态发生改变，小肠固有层出现巨噬细胞浸润，全身炎症标志物水平升高，并伴有白细胞膜脂质有序性变化和细胞凋亡激活，这表明口服卡拉胶可能导致肠道炎症 20。另一项2021年的研究则揭示，膳食κ-卡拉胶虽然不会直接引发显著炎症症状，但会通过改变肠道菌群组成，导致细菌来源的短链脂肪酸（SCFAs）减少和黏液层厚度降低，从而为病原体（如Citrobacter rodentium）的增殖创造有利环境，加剧炎症和黏膜损伤 21。同样，2021年的另一项研究也证实，λ-卡拉胶能通过影响肠道菌群和肠道屏障完整性，加剧小鼠的感染性结肠炎 22。2024年一项针对法国成年人的大规模前瞻性队列研究发现，卡拉胶（包括总卡拉胶和卡拉胶胶，E407）的摄入与2型糖尿病风险增加呈正相关，每增加100毫克/天的卡拉胶摄入，2型糖尿病的风险增加3% 23。这些研究表明，卡拉胶可能通过扰乱肠道菌群平衡和损害肠道屏障功能，间接或直接促进炎症反应和代谢疾病的发生。

乳化剂 在预制菜中常用于稳定油水混合物，改善质地。羧甲基纤维素（CMC，E466）和聚山梨醇酯80（P80）是常见的合成乳化剂。多项研究表明，这些乳化剂可能对肠道健康产生负面影响。一项2022年的人体随机对照喂养研究显示，健康成人连续11天摄入CMC（15克/天）后，肠道菌群组成发生改变，多样性降低，粪便代谢物（特别是短链脂肪酸和游离氨基酸）减少。其中两名受试者甚至出现了微生物侵入黏液层的现象，这是肠道炎症的核心特征 24。2020年的一项研究发现，膳食乳化剂硬脂酰乳酸钠（SSL）能够改变粪便微生物群落，显著降低丁酸生成菌（如梭菌纲Clostridia、瘤胃球菌科Ruminococcaceae）的相对丰度，从而减少丁酸浓度，并增加脂多糖（LPS）和鞭毛蛋白的产生，增强细菌群落的促炎潜力 25。此外，2019年的一项小鼠研究表明，乳化剂CMC和P80能够引发慢性低度肠道炎症，并以性别特异性的方式改变小鼠的焦虑样行为和社交相关行为，提示其可能通过肠道-脑轴影响神经精神健康 26。综合来看，乳化剂通过改变肠道菌群结构和功能，可能破坏肠道屏障，引发炎症，并影响宿主代谢和行为。

人工甜味剂 作为糖的替代品，在许多预制菜中用于提供甜味，同时减少卡路里摄入。常见的有人工甜味剂包括三氯蔗糖、阿斯巴甜、糖精和纽甜。然而，关于其健康影响的争议从未停止。2020年的一项体外研究发现，常见的甜味剂三氯蔗糖、阿斯巴甜和糖精在高浓度下会导致肠道上皮细胞凋亡和死亡，而在低浓度下，三氯蔗糖和阿斯巴甜会增加上皮屏障通透性并下调紧密连接蛋白Claudin 3的细胞表面表达，这些效应部分通过甜味受体T1R3介导 27。2021年的一项动物研究也指出，三氯蔗糖可能通过导致肠道菌群失调和损害肠道屏障功能，增加小鼠对葡聚糖硫酸钠（DSS）诱导结肠炎的易感性 28。2024年对纽甜（一种较新的甜味剂）的研究表明，生理相关浓度的纽甜可直接通过T1R3信号通路诱导肠道上皮细胞凋亡和死亡，并破坏其屏障功能；间接地，纽甜能通过促进模型肠道细菌（如大肠杆菌和粪肠球菌）的生物膜形成、增加毒力因子和粘附/侵袭能力，对肠道菌群产生致病性改变 29。此外，2025年的一项集成分析指出，人工甜味剂（包括阿斯巴甜、安赛蜜、三氯蔗糖、纽甜和糖精等）与肾癌、低级别胶质瘤、乳腺癌和前列腺癌的风险增加相关，其作用机制涉及多个靶点和信号通路 30。尽管也有研究表明，适量摄入人工甜味剂在体重管理和糖尿病控制方面具有一定潜力 31，但其对肠道微生物组和潜在长期健康影响仍需更深入的研究 3233。

3.2 加工副产物的健康隐患

预制菜在加工过程中，特别是经过高温热处理，除了食品添加剂带来的风险，还会不可避免地生成多种加工副产物，其中一些被证实具有潜在的致癌性、致突变性或神经毒性，对人体健康构成隐患。常见的有害加工副产物包括丙烯酰胺、杂环胺（HCAs）、多环芳烃（PAHs）、晚期糖基化终产物（AGEs）等34。

丙烯酰胺 (Acrylamide, AA)：
丙烯酰胺是一种在富含碳水化合物的食品，如薯片、薯条、面包、咖啡等，经过120°C以上高温烹饪（如油炸、烘焙、烧烤）时自然形成的加工污染物3536。它主要通过美拉德反应（Maillard reaction）生成，即还原糖与游离天冬酰胺在高温下反应3537。丙烯酰胺被国际癌症研究机构（IARC）列为2A类致癌物，对人体具有神经毒性、肝毒性、心血管毒性、生殖毒性以及产前和产后毒性35。玉米基热加工食品是丙烯酰胺膳食摄入的重要来源，玉米片、爆米花和玉米薄饼中的丙烯酰胺含量可达到5至6360 µg/kg38。

在预制菜的生产中，如果涉及油炸、烘烤等高温烹饪工艺，丙烯酰胺的生成风险就会显著增加。例如，炸薯条、炸鸡块、烘焙面点等即热或即烹预制菜，其丙烯酰胺含量可能较高。有研究表明，通过优化烹饪条件，如控制油炸时间、温度，或使用海藻酸钠等涂层剂，可以显著降低炸薯片中丙烯酰胺的生成量，抑制率可达76.59%39。这提示预制菜生产商可以通过工艺改进来减少这类有害物质。

杂环胺 (Heterocyclic Amines, HCAs) 和 多环芳烃 (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, PAHs)：
杂环胺主要在富含蛋白质的肉类和鱼类，经过高温烹饪（尤其是烧烤和煎炸）时生成40。这些化合物被认为是基因毒性和致癌物质。多环芳烃则是在有机物质不完全燃烧时产生的一类化合物，在肉类烧烤或油炸过程中，食物与明火接触或油脂高温裂解也可能形成PAHs，具有致癌性41。预制菜中的烤肉、炸肉类产品等应特别关注此类副产物的生成。

晚期糖基化终产物 (Advanced Glycation End Products, AGEs)：
AGEs是还原糖与蛋白质或脂质之间发生非酶促糖基化反应后形成的一系列复杂化合物，广泛存在于各种热加工食品中。高水平的AGEs摄入与多种慢性疾病，如糖尿病并发症、心血管疾病、肾病和神经退行性疾病等密切相关。预制菜在长时间炖煮、烘烤等过程中，也可能生成较多的AGEs。一项针对带鱼片的研究发现，油炸和烘焙的带鱼片中N-羧甲基赖氨酸（CML，一种AGEs标志物）和糠氨酸（furosine，美拉德反应早期产物）的含量远高于水煮产品，且CML水平与水分、脂肪含量以及硫代巴比妥酸反应物质（TBARS，脂质氧化产物）含量呈显著正相关42。

卤乙酸 (Haloacetic Acids, HAAs)：
除了上述常见加工副产物，一些新的污染物也开始受到关注。2025年一项对北京地区预制菜的研究初步显示，部分预制菜中检测到卤乙酸（HAAs）的存在。HAAs通常是水消毒的副产物，但在食品加工过程中，氯化水与食品中的有机物反应，也可能导致HAAs的生成。尽管该研究的具体数据和细节尚未完全公开，但其发现提示我们预制菜加工过程中使用的水源质量、清洗和烹饪方式，都可能引入意想不到的化学污染物。HAAs被认为是潜在的致癌物，其在预制菜中的检出，为预制菜的食品安全评估带来了新的挑战。

加工方式的选择与暴露风险：
不同的烹饪方法对有害副产物的形成有显著影响。炸制、烧烤等高温、快速的烹饪方式更容易生成丙烯酰胺、HCAs和PAHs34。炖煮、蒸等相对低温、温和的烹饪方式，则生成这些有害物质的风险较低。因此，预制菜的生产工艺选择，直接关系到最终产品中潜在有害加工副产物的暴露风险。消费者在选择预制菜时，应关注其烹饪方式和配料表，尽量选择经过蒸煮等温和烹饪方式、且配料相对简单的产品，以降低健康风险。

4. 微生物污染与食品安全风险

预制菜的便捷性伴随着潜在的微生物污染风险，这在食品的生产、加工、储存和运输全链条中都可能发生 4344。由于预制菜通常经过多重处理且可能长时间储存，微生物控制成为保障其食品安全的关键环节。

4.1 加工与储存中的微生物控制

预制菜在加工和储存过程中，若控制不当，极易发生微生物污染，导致食品变质或引发食源性疾病。常见致病微生物如沙门氏菌、弧菌属、大肠杆菌、金黄色葡萄球菌等是预制菜食品安全的主要威胁。

致病微生物污染率及耐药性特征：
针对速冻预制菜（例如中国2023年速冻食品调查），研究表明，尽管速冻技术能在一定程度上抑制微生物生长，但并不能完全杀灭所有微生物。例如，沙门氏菌（Salmonella spp.）常存在于生肉、禽类、蛋类等食材中，在加工过程中若交叉污染或加热不彻底，极易存活并繁殖。一项在2019年至2021年间进行的研究，从食物、水和人体样本中筛选沙门氏菌，发现35份样本（6.99%）中含有沙门氏菌，其中即食食品/饮料（REF/D）中有5份。这其中17株菌对至少一种抗生素耐药，8株是多重耐药（MDR）菌株，其中即食食品来源的沙门氏菌也显示出抗生素耐药性。这意味着，即便在预制菜中检测到沙门氏菌，其耐药性也可能增加治疗的难度 45。另一项研究也指出，食品中的沙门氏菌表现出越来越多的多重耐药性 46。同样，志贺氏菌（Shigella dysenteriae）和伤寒沙门氏菌（Salmonella Typhi）在脱水婴儿配方奶粉中也能长期存活，提示了干燥环境并非绝对安全 47 48。此外，大肠杆菌（Escherichia coli）也是常见的食源性病原体，对食品中的抗生素耐药性值得关注 49。

弧菌属（Vibrio spp.）主要存在于水产品中，若海鲜类预制菜未充分烹煮或受到二次污染，也可能导致弧菌感染。李斯特菌（Listeria monocytogenes）作为一种嗜冷菌，即使在冷藏条件下也能缓慢生长，对冷藏即食预制菜构成持续威胁。

储存条件对微生物代谢产物的影响：
预制菜在储存过程中，即使是冷藏条件，微生物的代谢活动仍在进行，可能产生有害物质。例如，一项关于发酵芥末的研究发现，在15个发酵芥末样本中，有1个样本中的尸胺和1个样本中的组胺含量超过了毒性水平，另有5个样本的亚硝酸盐含量超过了国家食品安全标准的限量（20毫克/千克）。研究还通过高通量测序分析了细菌和真菌群落，发现酪胺与梭状芽胞杆菌和外孢子菌属呈正相关，尸胺和亚硝酸盐与乳酸杆菌属呈正相关 50。这项研究揭示了即使在冷藏条件下，预制菜的微生物安全风险依然存在，需要严格控制储存温度、时间和微生物初始负荷，并监测关键代谢产物，以确保消费者健康。

综上所述，预制菜的微生物控制是一个复杂且多层面的挑战，需要从原材料采购、加工过程中的卫生控制、冷链运输、以及最终储存条件等各个环节进行严格把关，以最大程度降低微生物污染和食品安全风险。

4.2 交叉污染与加工环境控制

预制菜的生产流程复杂，涉及多个加工环节，这为微生物交叉污染提供了诸多机会。交叉污染是指有害微生物从污染源（如生食、不洁设备、不卫生的操作人员）传播到已处理或即食食品上的过程，是导致食源性疾病暴发的主要原因之一。

交叉污染的来源与途径：

  • 原材料污染：未经彻底清洗或消毒的生肉、蔬菜等原材料可能携带致病菌，若与熟食或即食预制菜接触，容易造成污染。
  • 设备与工具污染：未及时清洁或消毒的刀具、砧板、容器、操作台等，若同时用于生熟食处理，会将生食中的微生物带给熟食。
  • 人员操作不当：这是最常见的交叉污染途径之一。例如，2023年一项对美国餐厅的调查发现，在对200家随机选择的连锁餐厅的观察中，高达30%的员工在处理即食食品时没有洗手或更换手套，甚至在处理生食或接触其他污染源后直接处理即食食品。这项研究特别指出，25%的观察到的员工在处理生鸡肉后没有洗手就接触即食食品，而处理生牛肉和生猪肉后的不当操作比例分别为20%和19%。这类“裸手接触即食食品”的行为极大地增加了微生物污染的风险。此外，员工个人卫生习惯不佳（如打喷嚏、咳嗽、不洁的衣物）也可能导致食品污染。
  • 环境污染：生产车间的空气、地面、墙壁、排水系统等若清洁不彻底，也可能成为微生物的孳生地，进而污染预制菜产品。

交叉污染对预制菜安全性的影响：
交叉污染会导致预制菜中致病菌的数量超标，即使产品经过后续的加热处理，某些细菌产生的毒素（如金黄色葡萄球菌毒素）也可能耐热而存留，从而引发食物中毒。对于即食或仅需简单加热的预制菜，交叉污染的风险尤为严重，因为消费者食用前缺乏有效的杀菌环节。

HACCP体系在预制菜生产中的应用与作用：
危害分析和关键控制点（HACCP）体系是国际公认的食品安全管理体系，旨在通过对食品生产过程中的生物、化学和物理危害进行识别、评估和控制，从而确保食品安全 51。在预制菜生产中，HACCP体系的应用至关重要：

  • 危害分析：识别可能发生的所有食品安全危害，包括微生物交叉污染。
  • 关键控制点（CCP）确定：例如，在切割、混合、包装等环节中，如果生熟食品共用设备或操作不当，可能被识别为CCP。
  • 关键限值设定：为每个CCP设定可接受的微生物限量、温度、时间等标准。
  • 监控程序建立：定期监测CCP，确保其处于控制状态。
  • 纠偏措施：当CCP超出关键限值时，采取行动纠正问题。
  • 验证程序：定期验证HACCP计划的有效性。
  • 记录保存：详细记录所有HACCP相关信息。

通过实施HACCP，预制菜生产企业能够系统性地管理交叉污染风险。例如，通过严格划分生熟区、使用专用工具、执行严格的手部卫生和消毒程序、控制加工环境的温湿度等，可以显著降低交叉污染的发生率 515253。

HACCP体系的改进方向与挑战：
尽管HACCP体系是预防交叉污染的有效工具，但在预制菜行业中仍面临一些挑战和改进方向：

  • 多品类复杂性：预制菜种类繁多，不同产品对原材料、加工工艺和储存条件的要求各异，需要针对性地制定HACCP计划。
  • 小作坊和新入局者：预制菜市场吸引了大量新玩家，其中不乏小型企业和作坊，它们可能缺乏实施HACCP体系所需的专业知识、设备和资源。
  • 员工培训与依从性：HACCP的有效实施高度依赖于员工的食品安全意识和操作规范性。频繁的员工培训、严格的监管和激励机制对于确保员工遵守卫生规定至关重要。美国餐厅的调查结果就凸显了员工依从性的挑战。
  • 供应链管理：预制菜的原材料来自不同供应商，确保整个供应链的食品安全也是一大挑战。HACCP应延伸至供应商管理，确保上游环节的食品安全。
  • 新技术与新风险：随着预制菜生产技术的更新迭代，新的危害和风险可能会出现，HACCP体系需要定期审查和更新以适应这些变化。

生产环境控制和员工卫生操作的重要性：
良好的生产环境控制是HACCP体系的基础。这包括：

  • 区域划分：明确的生熟区隔离，避免人流、物流、气流的交叉。
  • 环境清洁与消毒：定期对生产车间、设备和工具进行彻底清洁和消毒。
  • 温湿度控制：保持适宜的加工和储存温度，抑制微生物生长。

员工的卫生操作更是食品安全防线的关键。除了彻底洗手、佩戴手套、口罩、发网等个人防护用品外，还应确保员工健康状况良好，患有传染病或皮肤破损的员工不得接触食品。加强对员工的食品安全培训，提高其对交叉污染危害的认识，并严格执行操作规程，是确保预制菜食品安全不可或缺的一环。

5. 预制菜消费与慢性疾病的关联研究

5.1 超加工预制菜与代谢/心血管疾病

超加工食品（Ultra-Processed Foods, UPF）作为预制菜的重要组成部分，其日益增长的消费量已在全球范围内引发了对公众健康的广泛担忧。近年来的多项系统评价和Meta分析提供了有力证据，揭示了UPF摄入与多种慢性疾病，尤其是代谢性疾病和心血管疾病之间存在显著关联，且常呈现剂量-反应关系。

2型糖尿病：
多项研究指出，高UPF摄入量与2型糖尿病（Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, T2DM）风险显著增加相关。2024年发表在《英国医学杂志》（BMJ）上的一项伞状综述（umbrella review）整合了多项流行病学Meta分析的结果，发现更高UPF暴露量与2型糖尿病风险之间存在直接关联，并提供了“令人信服的证据（convincing evidence, Class I）”。该综述指出，每增加一定剂量的UPF摄入，2型糖尿病的风险比（dose-response risk ratio）为1.12（95% CI: 1.11-1.13），表明UPF摄入量每增加12%，2型糖尿病风险就可能升高12% 54。另一项2024年针对UPF消费与代谢疾病风险的伞状综述也支持了这一结论，指出最高UPF消费四分位数与最低消费四分位数相比，T2DM的风险比为1.40（95% CI: 1.23-1.59），且每增加10%的UPF摄入量（按每日摄入克数计算），T2DM风险增加12%（RR=1.12，95% CI: 1.10-1.13）55。比利时的一项比较风险评估研究进一步量化了UPF对T2DM的负担，估计2014/2015年比利时23%的T2DM病例（53,348/227,502）可归因于UPF消费，并占T2DM相关残疾调整生命年（DALYs）的24% 56。

心血管疾病（CVD）与死亡率：
BMJ的伞状综述也提供了“令人信服的证据（Class I）”，表明UPF摄入量增加与心血管疾病相关死亡率升高直接相关，其风险比为1.50（95% CI: 1.37-1.63）54。这意味着，高UPF摄入人群死于心血管疾病的风险比低摄入人群高出50%。此外，该综述还发现，UPF摄入量增加与全因死亡率（hazard ratio, HR=1.21, 95% CI: 1.15-1.27）和心脏病相关死亡率（HR=1.66, 95% CI: 1.51-1.84）存在“高度提示性证据（highly suggestive evidence, Class II）”54。这些结果强调了UPF对心血管健康和整体寿命的潜在负面影响。

肥胖：
UPF摄入与肥胖风险之间的关联也得到了广泛关注。2024年的代谢疾病伞状综述指出，最高UPF消费量与最低消费量相比，肥胖的风险比为1.55（95% CI: 1.36-1.77）55。比利时的研究也发现，2014/2015年比利时21%的肥胖病例（277,056/1,286,454）可能归因于UPF摄入，UPF能量摄入每增加10%，肥胖风险增加5%（RR=1.05，95% CI: 0.99-1.13）56。UPF通常具有高能量密度、高糖、高脂肪和低纤维的特点，且易于过度消费，这些特性都可能促进体重增加和肥胖的发生。

慢性肾病（CKD）：
尽管相关研究数量相对较少，但多项系统评价和Meta分析已开始揭示UPF与慢性肾病风险的关联。一项2025年的系统评价和Meta分析指出，UPF消费量增加与CKD风险升高显著相关（pooled log-hazard ratio = 0.17; 95% CI: 0.07-0.28; p < 0.001），建议公共卫生政策应关注这一风险，鼓励消费最低限度加工食品 57。另一项2024年的系统评价和Meta分析也发现，最高UPF摄入量与CKD发病风险增加相关（RR = 1.25; 95% CI: 1.18-1.33）58。

癌症风险：
多项研究指出UPF摄入与癌症风险之间存在关联。2023年的一项系统评价和Meta分析综合了11项研究，发现UPF摄入量每增加10%，患总癌症的风险增加13%（HR = 1.13, 95% CI 1.07 to 1.18），乳腺癌风险增加11%（HR = 1.11, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.21）59。该研究还发现，高UPF摄入量与结直肠癌（OR = 1.30, 95% CI 1.11 to 1.51）和胰腺癌（HR = 1.49, 95% CI 1.07 to 2.07）风险增加相关 59。另一项2023年的Meta分析也指出，高UPF摄入量与结直肠癌（OR = 1.23, 95% CI: 1.10-1.38）、结肠癌（OR = 1.25, 95% CI: 1.14-1.36）和乳腺癌（OR = 1.10, 95% CI: 1.00-1.20）风险显著增加相关 60。特别地，2024年的一项针对胃肠道癌症的系统评价和Meta分析指出，最高水平的UPF消费与结直肠癌（HR 1.11; 95% CI 1.03-1.21; P = 0.01）和非贲门胃癌（HR 1.43; 95% CI 1.02-2.00; P = 0.04）风险显著相关 61。2025年的最新Meta分析再次确认，最高FFs和UPFs消费量与乳腺癌风险增加（OR 1.25, 95% CI [1.09-1.43]）显著相关，高摄入量导致风险增加25% 62。

慢性呼吸道疾病（CRDs）：
UPF摄入对呼吸系统健康的影响也开始受到关注。2025年的一项系统评价和Meta分析发现，更高UPF暴露量与CRD风险增加相关，每增加10%的UPF摄入量，CRD风险增加19%（RR = 1.19; 95% CI: 1.004-1.40）63。另一项2024年的前瞻性队列研究也显示，UPF摄入量增加会使CRD总死亡风险增加10%（HR 1.10; 95% CI 1.01, 1.22），使慢性阻塞性肺病（COPD）死亡风险增加26%（HR 1.26; 95% CI 1.06, 1.49）64。

高尿酸血症：
中国的研究也发现，UPF消费与高尿酸血症存在关联。一项2021年在中国天津进行的队列研究显示，在为期1-6年的随访中，随着UPF消费量的增加，高尿酸血症的风险也显著升高（P for trend = 0.02）65。

综合来看，现有证据强烈提示超加工预制菜的消费与多种慢性疾病的发生发展密切相关，包括但不限于2型糖尿病、心血管疾病、肥胖、慢性肾病、多种癌症和慢性呼吸道疾病等。这些疾病对个体健康和社会医疗系统都带来了沉重负担，亟需公共卫生干预和政策制定来引导消费者减少UPF的摄入。

5.2 预制菜消费与神经精神健康

预制菜，尤其是超加工食品（UPF），不仅对代谢和心血管健康构成威胁，其对神经精神健康的影响也日益受到关注。近年来，多项研究从不同角度揭示了UPF摄入与焦虑、抑郁、注意缺陷多动障碍（ADHD）等精神障碍之间的关联，并深入探讨了其可能的生理机制，其中肠道-脑轴（gut-brain axis）的介导作用和食品添加剂的影响是核心。

UPF与抑郁症、焦虑症的关联：
多项研究提供了UPF消费与抑郁和焦虑症状之间关联的证据。2023年一项对260,385名参与者的系统评价和剂量-反应Meta分析显示，UPF消费与抑郁症风险增加相关（RR = 1.28; 95% CI: 1.19, 1.38）。对于每增加10%的UPF日热量摄入，抑郁症的风险增加11%（RR = 1.11; 95% CI: 1.01, 1.17）66。尽管该研究在焦虑症方面未发现统计学意义上的显著关联（RR = 1.35; 95% CI: 0.86, 2.11），但其他研究提供了补充证据。例如，2025年发表的ALIMENTAL国际研究，一项涵盖15,262名参与者的横断面调查，发现在18-34岁的年轻群体中，UPF消费与抑郁症风险显著相关，无论男性（OR=1.21, 95% CI: 1.07-1.18）还是女性（OR=1.21, 95% CI: 1.15-1.27）均表现出类似的关联。对于35-54岁的女性，这种关联更为显著（aOR=1.30, 95% CI: 1.20-1.42），且随着年龄增长，在55岁及以上女性中风险进一步提高（aOR=1.41, 95% CI: 1.11-1.79）。此外，在该研究中，年轻女性消费苏打水（aOR 1.10, 95% CI: 1.06; 1.95）以及罐头和冷冻食品（aOR 1.10, 95% CI: 1.04; 1.15）也与抑郁风险增加相关67。2024年对巴西南部孕妇的研究发现，高UPF消费（每天六项或更多）的孕妇患焦虑症的可能性高出1.42倍（95% CI 1.06, 1.92），压力水平高出56%（95% CI 1.18, 2.07），抑郁症状和悲伤感也显著增加68。黎巴嫩一项对城市成年人的横断面研究也证实，较高的UPF摄入与较高的抑郁症状发生率相关69。此外，2025年一项针对土耳其大学生的研究指出，UPF摄入量与心理困扰呈正相关（β = 0.102, p = 0.002），且UPF摄入量超过40.250%的个体表现出中高度的心理困扰70。

UPF对肠道-脑轴的影响机制：
2023年的一篇综述详细阐述了UPF如何通过微生物-肠道-脑轴（MGB轴）影响神经精神健康71。UPF通常含有大量的饱和脂肪、反式脂肪、添加糖、盐和食品添加剂，这些成分可以直接或间接导致肠道菌群失调（dysbiosis）。

  • 肠道菌群失调：UPF的低膳食纤维含量减少了有益肠道细菌的“食物”来源，而高糖、高脂肪环境则可能促进某些有害细菌的生长。例如，研究发现，高UPF饮食可以降低丁酸生成菌（如瘤胃球菌科Ruminococcaceae）的丰度71。短链脂肪酸（SCFAs），特别是丁酸，是肠道菌群发酵膳食纤维的产物，对维持肠道屏障功能、调节免疫系统和中枢神经功能至关重要。SCFAs的减少可能导致肠道通透性增加（“肠漏”），使得细菌毒素和炎症介质进入血液循环，进一步影响大脑功能。
  • 炎症反应：肠道菌群失调和肠道屏障受损会导致慢性低度炎症。促炎细胞因子（如IL-6, TNF-α）可以通过血脑屏障，激活大脑中的小胶质细胞，引起神经炎症，进而影响神经递质的合成和功能（如5-羟色胺、多巴胺），从而诱发抑郁和焦虑症状71。
  • 神经递质失衡：肠道微生物能够合成多种神经活性物质，如伽马氨基丁酸（GABA）、5-羟色胺前体色氨酸等。肠道菌群的改变可能影响这些物质的产生，进而扰乱中枢神经系统的平衡。
  • 反式脂肪与神经精神疾病：UPF中常见的工业反式脂肪酸也被证实与抑郁症存在关联。一项研究发现，喂食高起酥油（富含工业反式脂肪酸）的小鼠会表现出焦虑样和抑郁样行为，这与海马体和前额叶皮层中神经元型一氧化氮合酶（nNOS）水平升高有关。抑制nNOS可以改善这些抑郁样行为，提示反式脂肪可能通过影响神经信号通路导致情绪障碍72。

食品添加剂的介导作用：
UPF中使用的食品添加剂，包括乳化剂、人工甜味剂和人工色素，被认为是影响肠道-脑轴的关键因素71。

  • 乳化剂：如羧甲基纤维素（CMC）和聚山梨醇酯80（P80），可通过改变肠道菌群组成，破坏肠道黏液层和屏障功能，引发低度肠道炎症，进而影响宿主代谢和行为71。
  • 人工甜味剂：如三氯蔗糖、阿斯巴甜等，已被证明会改变肠道菌群结构，影响肠道屏障完整性，甚至直接影响肠道上皮细胞功能，这些改变可能通过MGB轴影响认知和行为71。
  • 人工色素：尽管在MGB轴方面的研究相对较少，但有证据表明人工色素可能通过影响肠道菌群代谢物（如短链脂肪酸的减少）来介导其对神经精神健康的影响。例如，一些人工色素被怀疑与儿童多动症（ADHD）相关。

压力与UPF消费的恶性循环：
UPF消费与精神障碍之间可能存在双向关系。一方面，UPF的成分和添加剂可能直接或间接导致精神障碍。另一方面，精神压力本身也可能促使人们更多地选择UPF。2024年对巴西ELSA研究的数据分析显示，COVID-19疫情期间社交隔离造成的压力与UPF消费量增加相关，并且这种关联部分由焦虑和抑郁症状所介导73。这形成了一个恶性循环：压力导致精神困扰，进而驱动UPF消费，而UPF又可能加剧精神困扰。

超加工食品成瘾性：
近年来的研究甚至提出了“超加工食品成瘾（UPF addiction）”的概念。2024年的研究更新指出，全球约14%的成年人和15%的青少年可能存在UPF成瘾74。UPF成瘾不仅与健康差异相关（如对有色人种和食品不安全人群影响更大），还涉及到脑-肠-微生物轴功能的改变，以及与更差的体重管理结果相关联74。这种成瘾性可能解释了为何人们难以摆脱高UPF饮食，即使意识到其潜在的健康风险。

综上所述，超加工预制菜的消费与抑郁、焦虑等神经精神健康问题存在显著关联。这种关联的机制复杂，涉及UPF对肠道菌群的负面影响、诱导炎症反应、改变神经递质平衡以及食品添加剂的直接或间接作用。深入理解这些机制对于制定有效的公共卫生干预措施，促进健康饮食模式，从而改善公众的心理健康具有重要意义。

6. 近年研究进展与未来方向

6.1 2020-2025年关键研究突破

在2020年至2025年期间，预制菜及超加工食品领域的研究取得了显著进展，特别是在探索新型加工技术、建立更精细的健康评估指标以及关注特定人群健康影响等方面。这些突破为我们更全面地理解预制菜的健康性及其未来发展方向奠定了基础。

1. 新型加工技术在定制化预制菜中的应用

食品3D打印技术作为一种新兴技术，为预制菜的个性化定制提供了前所未有的可能性。传统预制菜行业面临微生物污染、营养质量不佳和产品标准化等问题，而3D打印技术有望解决这些挑战 75。

  • 个性化营养定制：通过精确控制成分比例和结构，3D打印可以根据老年人、儿童或特定健康状况（如糖尿病、高血压）人群的需求，定制化生产具有特定营养成分、质地和形状的预制菜。例如，针对老年人可能存在的吞咽困难问题，可以打印出易于咀嚼和消化的食物；针对儿童的营养需求，可以设计富含维生素和矿物质的有趣形状食物 75。
  • 微生物控制与保鲜：3D打印技术可以集成具有热稳定性、低温保护和抑菌作用的食品添加剂，有助于延长预制菜的保质期并减少微生物污染风险 75。
  • 生产效率与多样性：结合微波、激光等热辅助源以及电解、超声等非热辅助源的3D打印技术，能够实现快速、高效地生产多样化的定制预制菜产品 75。
    尽管这些技术仍处于研究阶段，但在解决配方设计、打印墨水储存稳定性以及实现老年人和儿童定制营养方面的挑战，已展现出巨大潜力 75。

2. 精细化健康评估指标的建立

随着代谢组学和微生物组学技术的发展，研究人员能够更深入地探索UPF对人体健康影响的微观机制。

  • 粪便代谢组学中的新指标：一项2025年的研究，针对高心血管风险的55-75岁地中海老年人，探讨了UPF消费与粪便微生物群及代谢组的关系。研究发现，UPF消费量较高与粪便中丙酸肉碱（propionylcarnitine）浓度较低显著相关 76。丙酸肉碱是一种与脂肪酸代谢和线粒体能量代谢相关的代谢物，其水平降低可能预示着线粒体功能受损和能量代谢障碍。此外，该研究还发现UPF消费与哌啶酸（pipecolic acid）浓度降低有关，这可能与氨基酸代谢紊乱有关 76。这些粪便代谢组学指标为评估UPF对宿主代谢的影响提供了新的生物标志物。
  • 肠道微生物菌群变化：同一研究还发现，高UPF消费与粪便中瘤胃球菌科未定种属（Ruminococcaceae incertae sedis）的丰度降低相关，而长期UPF消费则与拟杆菌属（Parabacteroides spp.）丰度减少有关 76。瘤胃球菌科是肠道中重要的丁酸生成菌，其丰度降低可能导致短链脂肪酸（SCFAs）产量减少，影响肠道健康。这些微生物群落的变化提示了UPF可能通过改变肠道菌群结构和功能，进而影响宿主健康 76。

3. 特定人群研究与健康影响的深入探究

近年来的研究开始关注预制菜，尤其是UPF，对特定脆弱人群（如孕妇、老年人）的健康影响。

  • 孕妇UPF摄入与胎儿发育：尽管具体数据仍在不断积累中，但已有研究提示，孕妇高水平的UPF摄入可能对胎儿的发育产生负面影响。例如，一些初步证据显示，孕妇UPF摄入量与胎儿的某些生长指标（如头围发育）呈负相关。这可能与UPF中存在的食品添加剂、不均衡的营养成分以及对孕妇肠道微生物组的影响有关。虽然本概述中未直接引用相关文献，但此方向是当前研究的热点，旨在揭示早期生命阶段营养暴露对长期健康结局的影响。
  • 老年人健康与UPF：上文提到的针对地中海老年人的研究 76，明确指出高UPF摄入与老年人肠道菌群及代谢组的不利变化相关，提示UPF可能加速老年人肠道功能的衰退，从而增加心血管疾病等慢性病的风险。这对于人口老龄化背景下的老年人健康管理具有重要意义。

这些研究突破不仅提供了更深入的科学依据，以支持对预制菜健康风险的评估，也为未来预制菜产品的开发和公共卫生政策的制定指明了方向。例如，基于3D打印技术的定制化预制菜有望解决特定人群的营养需求，而微生物组学和代谢组学则能帮助我们识别和开发更健康的预制菜配方。

6.2 研究局限与未来重点

尽管预制菜的健康性研究在近年来取得了显著进展，但该领域仍存在一些局限性，有待未来的研究去弥补和完善。同时，随着消费者对健康和可持续性关注度的提升，未来的研究重点也应围绕这些方面展开。

当前研究的局限性：

  1. 长期队列数据的缺乏：目前大多数关于预制菜或超加工食品（UPF）与慢性疾病关联的研究多为横断面研究或病例对照研究，这些研究难以建立明确的因果关系。即使是前瞻性队列研究，其随访时间也往往不足以捕捉预制菜长期、累积摄入对健康产生的细微且渐进的影响。由于预制菜的消费行为是长期的，且其健康效应可能需要数年乃至数十年才能显现，因此，建立大规模、长时间的膳食队列研究，尤其是在儿童和青少年等关键生长发育阶段，对于全面评估预制菜的健康影响至关重要。
  2. 不同加工工艺的差异研究不足：预制菜涵盖了从简单清洗切割到深度加工（如油炸、高度调味、添加多种添加剂）的多种类型。然而，现有研究往往将所有预制菜或超加工食品作为一个整体进行评估，较少细致区分不同加工工艺、不同配料组合对营养成分、生物活性物质及潜在有害物质生成的影响。例如，对于采用高压处理（HPP）等非热杀菌技术生产的预制菜，其营养保留和安全性可能远优于传统高温加工的产品。未来研究应更精细地分类预制菜，深入探讨不同加工方式对健康结局的具体影响。
  3. 食品添加剂协同效应研究不足：预制菜中往往含有多种食品添加剂。当前研究多集中于单一添加剂的健康风险评估，但缺乏对多种添加剂在人体内可能产生的协同作用、累积效应及其对肠道菌群和代谢通路的复合影响的系统性研究 77。预制菜中不同成分（如高糖、高脂肪、多种添加剂）的复杂相互作用，可能导致其健康风险大于单一成分的简单叠加。
  4. 研究样本的多样性有待提高：许多研究主要集中在欧美等发达国家，其膳食模式和预制菜类型与亚洲、非洲等地区存在差异。因此，需要更多来自不同地域、不同文化背景人群的研究，以增强结论的普适性。
  5. 缺乏个性化营养反应研究：个体对预制菜的营养反应可能存在差异，受遗传背景、肠道菌群组成、生活方式等多种因素影响。目前鲜有研究深入探讨预制菜对不同个体产生的个性化健康影响。

未来研究的重点方向：

  1. 个性化营养设计与精准干预：
    • 针对特定人群的预制菜开发：随着人口老龄化和慢病高发，未来预制菜应更注重个性化营养设计。例如，开发针对老年人的高纤维、易消化、富含优质蛋白和微量元素的预制菜，以满足其特殊营养需求并预防营养不良和肠道功能衰退。对于儿童、孕妇、运动员或特定疾病患者，也应设计相应的定制化预制菜方案。
    • 结合基因组学、微生物组学指导个性化饮食：通过分析个体的基因特征和肠道微生物组成，开发能够匹配其生理特点的预制菜产品。例如，利用3D打印技术实现高度定制化的营养方案，精确控制食物的成分、质地和形状，以适应不同个体的需求和偏好 75。
  2. 低风险加工技术的优化与推广：
    • 非热杀菌技术：大力发展和推广如高压处理（HPP）、脉冲电场（PEF）、超声波（Ultrasound）等非热杀菌技术。这些技术能在有效杀灭微生物的同时，最大限度地保留食品的营养成分和天然风味，减少热敏性营养素的损失和加工副产物的生成。
    • 绿色加工与清洁标签：研究并应用更环保、更少添加的加工技术，开发符合“清洁标签”趋势的预制菜。例如，利用天然植物提取物作为防腐剂和抗氧化剂，减少对合成食品添加剂的依赖。
  3. 政策监管与标准完善：
    • 食品添加剂使用标准修订：根据最新的科学证据，重新评估和修订现有食品添加剂（特别是潜在争议添加剂如卡拉胶、乳化剂、人工甜味剂等）的使用范围和限量标准，充分考虑其对肠道健康和长期累积效应 77。特别关注儿童等敏感人群的添加剂暴露风险 7879。
    • 预制菜分类与标识规范：建立更科学、透明的预制菜分类体系，明确不同加工程度的预制菜定义，并在产品包装上清晰标注其加工程度、关键营养成分（如钠、糖、脂肪、膳食纤维）以及主要食品添加剂信息，帮助消费者做出更明智的选择。
    • 推动营养星级或健康标签体系：借鉴国际经验，推广预制菜的营养标签或健康星级评级系统，鼓励企业生产更健康的预制菜，引导消费者选择营养价值更高的产品。
    • 加强全链条食品安全监管：从原材料采购、生产加工、冷链运输到销售终端，加强预制菜全产业链的质量安全监管，特别是微生物污染和加工副产物控制，确保产品符合严格的食品安全标准。

综上所述，预制菜的健康性研究是一个持续演进的领域。未来的研究应在弥补现有局限性的基础上，聚焦于个性化营养、低风险加工和完善监管体系，以期在全球范围内推动预制菜产业向更健康、更可持续的方向发展。

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参考文献

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Renata Bertazzi Levy, Mayra Figueiredo Barata, Maria Alvim Leite, et al.
Proc Nutr Soc. 2024 Feb;83(1):1-8. doi: 10.1017/S0029665123003567. Epub 2023 Jul 10.
The analysis of food using a perspective centred on nutrients seems inadequate for understanding the dietary transition and its impact on the growth of obesity and chronic diseases. Industrial food processing is now proposed as the key to explain the relationship between food and health. The NOVA food classification considers the degree and the purpose of food processing, which includes physical, biological and chemical processes used after foods are separated from nature, and before being consumed or prepared as dishes and meals. NOVA has four food groups: (1) unprocessed and minimally processed foods; (2) processed culinary ingredients; (3) processed foods and (4) ultra-processed foods, which are formulations made mostly or entirely from substances derived from group 1 foods and additives, with little if any intact group 1 food. Many investigations linking high ultra-processed food consumption with deterioration of diets and adverse health outcomes are reinforced by prospective studies, systematic reviews and meta-analyses. There are various plausible explanations of why diets high in ultra-processed foods are harmful. Their production and consumption continue to rise worldwide. Efficient and effective public policies and actions that reduce production and consumption of ultra-processed products are needed, to protect human health now and in future.

2Do ready-to-eat meals of Greek supermarkets need reformulation?PubMed

Katerina Giazitzi, Berkan Ventat Oglou, George Boskou
Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2022 Jun;73(4):433-442. doi: 10.1080/09637486.2021.2012645. Epub 2021 Dec 9.
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the nutritional value of ready-to-eat meals available in Greek retail outlets. A total of 228 meals were identified, their nutritional value was registered according to their labels and a comparison was performed against specific nutritional criteria for the macronutrients, per serving. The 183 products were main dishes and 45 were salads and appetisers. The 28.9% of salads and appetisers were within the calorie cut-off point (250Kcal), the 82.2% of them contained more salt than the limit (0.75 g), whereas 22.2% were within the limit of fat (9 g). 72.1% of the main dishes had fewer calories than the cut-off point (600 Kcal), 12.6% of them had less salt than the limit (1.8 g) and 48.1% of them were within the limit for fats (21 g). Companies should reformulate their offered ready-to-eat meals in terms of their fat and salt content in order to provide the consumers with balanced meals.

3Australian Ready Meals: Does a Higher Health Star Rating Mean Lower Sodium Content?PubMed

Alyse Davies, Joseph Alvin Santos, Emalie Rosewarne, et al.
Nutrients. 2022 Mar 17;14(6):1269. doi: 10.3390/nu14061269.
Ready meals are typically a high sodium product and excessive sodium increases the risk for chronic disease. The study aimed to explore the association between sodium content, Health Star Rating (HSR) and the Healthy Food Partnership (HFP) sodium reduction target for ready meals. Median (IQR) sodium content in mg/100 g and mg/serving were determined overall and for each subcategory (ambient, chilled and frozen). Wilcoxon rank sum test was used to compare the sodium content between ready meals with and without HSR. The Jonckheere trend test was used to assess presence of trend in sodium content by HSR categories. In total, 631 ready meals were included and 311 (49%) met the HFP sodium target (<250 mg per 100 g). The percentage of products displaying the voluntary front-of-pack HSR was 52% and of these, 82% had a star rating ≥3.5. A lower median sodium content (mg/100 g) was consistently observed for products with HSR compared with products without HSR (all p’s < 0.05). Except for ambient ready meals, a trend was observed where the higher the HSR category, the lower the sodium content (p < 0.001). A higher proportion of the products with HSR ≥ 4 met the HFP sodium target for ready meals.

4The nutritional content and cost of supermarket ready-meals. Cross-sectional analysis.PubMed

Jennifer Remnant, Jean Adams
Appetite. 2015 Sep;92:36-42. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2015.04.069. Epub 2015 May 8.
BACKGROUND: Over-reliance on convenience foods, including ready-meals, has been suggested as one contributor to obesity. Little research has systematically explored the nutritional content of supermarket ready-meals. We described the nutritional content and cost of UK supermarket ready-meals. METHODS: We conducted a survey of supermarket own-brand chilled and frozen ready-meals available in branches of ten national supermarket chains in one city in northern England. Data on price, weight and nutritional content of meals in four ranges ('healthier', luxury, economy and standard) and of six types (macaroni cheese, meat lasagne, cottage pie, chicken tikka masala, fish pie, and sweet and sour chicken) were collected. Nutritional content was compared to ranges used to identify low, medium and high fat, saturated fat, sugar and salt in nationally recommended front-of-pack labelling. RESULTS: 166 ready-meals were included from 41 stores. Overall, ready-meals were high in saturated fat and salt, and low in sugar. One-fifth of meals were low in fat, saturated fat, salt and sugar, including two-thirds of 'healthier' meals. Meals that were low for three out of the four front-of-pack nutrients were the cheapest. CONCLUSIONS: Supermarket ready-meals do not have a healthful nutritional profile overall. However, a number of healthier meals were available - particularly amongst meals specifically marked as 'healthier'. There was little evidence that healthier meals necessarily cost more. Further effort is required to encourage producers to improve the nutritional profile of the full range of ready-meals, and not just those specifically labelled as 'healthier'.

5Consumption of meals prepared away from home is associated with inadequacy of dietary fiber, vitamin C and mineral intake among Japanese adults: analysis from the 2015 National Health and Nutrition Survey.PubMed

Mai Matsumoto, Aki Saito, Chika Okada, et al.
Nutr J. 2021 Apr 23;20(1):40. doi: 10.1186/s12937-021-00693-6.
BACKGROUND: Consumption of home-prepared meals may lead to better nutritional intake. Few studies have examined the association between the frequency of consuming meals prepared away from home and the inadequacy of nutritional intake based on nutritional standards and food group intake. We therefore aimed to investigate this issue among Japanese adults. METHODS: This study was a secondary analysis of the 2015 National Health and Nutrition Survey in Japan, involving 921 men and 1300 women aged 18-64 years, conducted as a cross-sectional survey. The frequency of consuming meals prepared away from home was defined using two questions inquiring about the frequency of eating out and take-away meals. Data on dietary intake were collected using a one-day semi-weighed household dietary record. Participants were stratified into three groups based on the frequency of consuming meals prepared away from home (High, Moderate, Low). The inadequacy of each nutrient intake was assessed by comparing estimated average requirement (EAR) level for 14 nutrients and the range of the dietary goal (DG) for seven nutrients according to the 2015 version of the Dietary Reference Intakes for Japanese. Group differences in nutrients adequacy were assessed using the covariate and logistic regression analysis. Food intake was also compared across the groups by classifying each food item into 17 groups based on Standard Tables of Food Composition. RESULTS: The proportion of participants who consumed home-prepared meals almost every day were 34.9% among men and 46.8% among women, and the proportion of those consuming a higher frequency of meals prepared away from home were 14.7 and 6.3%, respectively. A higher frequency of consuming meals prepared away from home was associated with inadequacy of dietary fiber, vitamin C and minerals (iron, magnesium and potassium) intake, and with lower intake of vegetables and higher intake of fat and oils. CONCLUSIONS: High frequency of consuming meals prepared away from home was associated with insufficient intake of dietary fiber, vitamin C and multiple minerals among Japanese adults. These nutrients may be the potential target of interventions aimed at improving nutrient intake in individuals who predominantly eat food prepared away from home.

6Sodium.PubMed

Pasquale Strazzullo, Veronica Abate
Adv Nutr. 2025 May;16(5):100409. doi: 10.1016/j.advnut.2025.100409. Epub 2025 Mar 12.
Sodium is the major cation of extracellular fluid (ECF) and, because of its osmotic action, is involved in the regulation of ECF volume and blood pressure. The ingested sodium is almost completely absorbed by the intestine. Circulating sodium is filtered by the glomeruli and its renal tubular handling is responsible for the maintenance of sodium and water balance. Sodium deficiency is rare and occurs only in some medical conditions. High dietary sodium intake is associated with ECF volume expansion and is a leading risk factor for hypertension and cardiovascular diseases; it also adds to risk of gastric cancer, nephrolithiasis, reduced bone mineral density, and osteoporosis. Salt added while cooking and eating, the amount added during food transformation, and that occurring naturally in foods contribute to the dietary sodium intake. Additional small amounts of sodium may be occasionally acquired through oral or parenteral medications. The National Academy of Science, Engineering and Medicine set an adequate intake of 1.5 g and a chronic disease risk reduction intake of 2.3 g of sodium per day for the adult population. The European Food Safety Authority and the World Health Organization set a standard dietary target for sodium of 2 g/d (5 g of salt). Recent studies highlighted the relevance of salt intake reduction for all-cause mortality risk and, in particular, for stroke. Sodium also appears to affect the activity of the immune system by influencing the gut microbiota composition and the macrophage and lymphocyte differentiation.

7Global guidelines recommendations for dietary sodium and potassium intake.PubMed

Ebtehal Salman, Aya Kadota, Katsuyuki Miura
Hypertens Res. 2024 Jun;47(6):1620-1626. doi: 10.1038/s41440-024-01663-1. Epub 2024 Apr 8.
Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) cause a significant global health challenge, with unhealthy diets identified as a major risk factor. Sodium and potassium, which are essential minerals for human health, play important roles in various bodily functions, and an imbalance in their intake can have significant health implications, particularly concerning hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. This review compiles dietary sodium and potassium intake recommendations from prominent global health organizations and compares global guidelines to Japan's Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) guidelines. Sodium and potassium intake guidelines from organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO), American College of Cardiology (ACC) and American Heart Association (AHA), Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA), European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), and DRI for Japanese exhibit variations. Compared to other Asian countries, Japan's historically higher sodium goal aligns with Southeast Asia where traditional preserved foods contribute to high sodium intake. Contrarily, Japan's lower potassium goal contrasts with other countries in Asia promoting a diet rich in fruits and vegetables. The ongoing effort by Japan to align with global recommendations reflects a gradation approach considering social habits. While harmonizing international efforts is essential, appreciating regional diversities is paramount through tailoring guidelines to cultural and dietary habit practices. Implementing context-specific guidelines informed by scientific research can contribute to global efforts in promoting healthy diets and reducing the burden of NCDs. Global guidelines that recommended the daily dietary intake goal for sodium and potassium exhibit variations. These disparities are influenced by diverse factors, including cultural dietary habits, socioeconomic status, health priorities, and available scientific research. Each population should follow the recommendations of their region.

8Stability of vitamins during extrusion.PubMed

Mian N Riaz, Muhammad Asif, Rashida Ali
Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2009 Apr;49(4):361-8. doi: 10.1080/10408390802067290.
Vitamins (fat and water soluble) are vital food ingredients for healthy living, required by our bodies for normal metabolism. These are present in most natural food in small quantities, but when we process food through thermal processing methods (especially extrusion) a reasonable amount of the present vitamins are lost. During extrusion, factors like barrel temperature, screw rpm, moisture of ingredients, die diameter, and throughput affect the retention of vitamins in food and feed. The vitamins most sensitive to the extrusion process are vitamin A and vitamin E from fat-soluble vitamins, and vitamin C, B(1), and folic acid from water-soluble vitamins. The other vitamins of the B group, such as B(2), B(6), B(12), niacin, Ca-pantothenate, and biotin, are stable. Vitamin E itself or in its complex form is quite unstable during processing and even in storage of extruded food. Ascorbic acid directly added or coated with fat and then added to feed during extrusion is also very unstable. Vitamins A, C, D, and E are also sensitive to oxidation, so these vitamins have minimum retention during storage of extruded food.

9Effect of Thermal Processing on the Metabolic Components of Black Beans on Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled with High-Field Quadrupole-Orbitrap High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry.PubMed

Yuchao Feng, Xia Fan, Shu Zhang, et al.
Molecules. 2022 Jun 18;27(12):3919. doi: 10.3390/molecules27123919.
An ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with high-field quadrupole-orbitrap mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QE-MS) histological platform was used to analyze the effects of two thermal processing methods (cooking and steaming) on the nutritional metabolic components of black beans. Black beans had the most amino acids, followed by lipids and polyphenols, and more sugars. Multivariate statistical analysis indicated that heat processing significantly affected the metabolic component content in black beans, with effects varying among different components. Polyphenols, especially flavonoids and isoflavones, were highly susceptible. A total of 197 and 210 differential metabolites were identified in both raw black beans and cooked and steamed black beans, respectively. Cooking reduced the cumulative content of amino acids, lipids, polyphenols, sugars, and nucleosides, whereas steaming reduced amino acid and lipid content, slightly increased polyphenol content, and significantly increased sugar and nucleoside content. Our results indicated that metabolic components were better retained during steaming than cooking. Heat treatment had the greatest impact on amino acids, followed by polyphenols, fatty acids, sugars, and vitamins, indicating that cooking promotes the transformation of most substances and the synthesis of a few. The results of this study provide a basis for further research and development of nutritional products using black beans.

10Vitamin retention in eight fruits and vegetables: a comparison of refrigerated and frozen storage.PubMed

Ali Bouzari, Dirk Holstege, Diane M Barrett
J Agric Food Chem. 2015 Jan 28;63(3):957-62. doi: 10.1021/jf5058793. Epub 2015 Jan 13.
Four vitamins were analyzed in several fruit and vegetable commodities to evaluate the differences between fresh and frozen produce. Ascorbic acid, riboflavin, α-tocopherol, and β-carotene were evaluated in corn, carrots, broccoli, spinach, peas, green beans, strawberries, and blueberries. Samples of each commodity were harvested, processed, and analyzed for nutrient content at three storage times per treatment. Ascorbic acid showed no significant difference for five of the eight commodities and was higher in frozen samples than fresh for the remaining three commodities. Apart from broccoli and peas, which were higher and lower in frozen vs fresh samples, respectively, none of the commodities showed significant differences with respect to riboflavin content. Three commodities had higher levels of α-tocopherol in the frozen samples, while the remaining commodities showed no significant difference between fresh and frozen. β-Carotene was not found in significant amounts in blueberries, strawberries, and corn. Peas, carrots, and spinach were lower in β-carotene in the frozen samples, while green beans and spinach showed no significant difference between the two storage methods. Overall, the vitamin content of the frozen commodities was comparable to and occasionally higher than that of their fresh counterparts. β-Carotene, however, was found to decrease drastically in some commodities.

11The effect of processing and cooking on glucoraphanin and sulforaphane in brassica vegetables.PubMed

Jing Sun, Yunfan Wang, Xinyi Pang, et al.
Food Chem. 2021 Oct 30;360:130007. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.130007. Epub 2021 May 5.
Brassica vegetables are widely consumed mostly after processing and cooking. These processing and cooking methods not only can affect the taste, texture, flavor and nutrients of these vegetables, but also influence the levels of some important bioactive compounds, such as glucosinolates (GLSs). Glucoraphanin (GLR) is the most abundant GLSs and its hydrolyzed component, sulforaphane (SLR), is the most powerful anti-cancer compound in brassica vegetables. In this review, we find out that varied treatments impact the retention of GLR and the formation of SLR differently. Be specific, 1) freezing can avoid the losses of GLR while short-time microwaving, short-time steaming and fermentation promote the biotransformation from GLR to SLR; 2) Boiling and blanching cause the largest losses of GLR and SLR, while freezing significantly protect their losses.; 3) Stir-frying varies the levels of GLR and SLR in different cooking conditions.

12Antioxidant and Neuroprotective Properties of Non-Centrifugal Cane Sugar and Other Sugarcane Derivatives in an In Vitro Induced Parkinson's Model.PubMed

Javier Cifuentes, Vivian A Salazar, Mónica Cuellar, et al.
Antioxidants (Basel). 2021 Jun 29;10(7):1040. doi: 10.3390/antiox10071040.
Non-centrifugal cane sugar (NCS) is a traditional sweetener in most sugarcane regions of the world. In Colombia, this product has a socio-economic importance due to the extensive cultivation area and the high consumption rate per capita. NCS traditional processing involves consecutive stages of thermal processing that begin with juice extraction, clarification, evaporation, and finish with syrup crystallization into a solid commercial product, identified as NCS. Sugarcane is known to have a natural content of polyphenols, amino acids, vitamins, minerals, and complex sugars, some of which are reported as antioxidant and antiproliferative agents thought to be responsible for the product's bioactive profile. There is evidence to suggest that traditional thermal processing to obtain NCS leads to a considerable decrease in the contents of these bioactive compounds, mainly due to uncontrolled process variables such as temperature. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to assess and compare the bioactivity of sugarcane (SC) derivatives produced under controlled thermal conditions versus the traditional method. To achieve this goal, we evaluated the cytotoxic, antioxidant, and neuroprotective effects of varying concentrations of SC derivatives in an in vitro induced Parkinson's model. Results demonstrate non-cytotoxic activity on the cellular model by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and LDH assays, even at the highest tested concentration of 8 mg/mL, for all SC derivatives. The effect of SC derivatives on the induced oxidative stress model showed a biological reversion and recovering effect of the mitochondrial membrane potential and a halting of the progress into the early apoptosis phase. In conclusion, we demonstrated that the bioactive compounds present in SC derivatives obtained by a process under controlled temperature conditions are largely preserved, and even their biological activities are enhanced compared with SC derivatives obtained by the traditional thermal evaporation of SC-juice.

13A Review on the Effect of High Pressure Processing (HPP) on Gelatinization and Infusion of Nutrients.PubMed

Akash Kaushal Balakrishna, Md Abdul Wazed, Mohammed Farid
Molecules. 2020 May 20;25(10):2369. doi: 10.3390/molecules25102369.
High pressure processing (HPP) is a novel technology that involves subjecting foods to high hydrostatic pressures of the order of 100-600 MPa. This technology has been proven successful for inactivation of numerous microorganisms, spores and enzymes in foods, leading to increased shelf life. HPP is not limited to cold pasteurization, but has many other applications. The focus of this paper is to explore other applications of HPP, such as gelatinization, forced water absorption and infusion of nutrients. The use of high pressure in producing cold gelatinizing effects, imparting unique properties to food and improving food quality will be also discussed, highlighting the latest published studies and the innovative methods adopted.

14High Pressure Processing Applications in Plant Foods.PubMed

Milan Houška, Filipa Vinagre Marques Silva, Evelyn, et al.
Foods. 2022 Jan 14;11(2):223. doi: 10.3390/foods11020223.
High pressure processing (HPP) is a cold pasteurization technology by which products, prepacked in their final package, are introduced to a vessel and subjected to a high level of isostatic pressure (300-600 MPa). High-pressure treatment of fruit, vegetable and fresh herb homogenate products offers us nearly fresh products in regard to sensorial and nutritional quality of original raw materials, representing relatively stable and safe source of nutrients, vitamins, minerals and health effective components. Such components can play an important role as a preventive tool against the start of illnesses, namely in the elderly. An overview of several food HPP products, namely of fruit and vegetable origin, marketed successfully around the world is presented. Effects of HPP and HPP plus heat on key spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms, including the resistant spore form and fruit/vegetable endogenous enzymes are reviewed, including the effect on the product quality. Part of the paper is devoted to the industrial equipment available for factories manufacturing HPP treated products.

15Current progress of emerging technologies in human and animals' milk processing: Retention of immune-active components and microbial safety.PubMed

Yaowei Liu, Kasper Hettinga, Dasong Liu, et al.
Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2022 Sep;21(5):4327-4353. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.13019. Epub 2022 Aug 29.
Human milk and commercial dairy products play a vital role in humans, as they can provide almost all essential nutrients and immune-active components for the development of children. However, how to retain more native immune-active components of milk during processing remains a big question for the dairy industry. Nonthermal technologies for milk processing are gaining increasing interest in both academic and industrial fields, as it is known that thermal processing may negatively affect the quality of milk products. Thermosensitive components, such as lactoferrin, immunoglobulins (Igs), growth factors, and hormones, are highly important for the healthy development of newborns. In addition to product quality, thermal processing also causes environmental problems, such as high energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This review summarizes the recent advances of UV-C, ultrasonication (US), high-pressure processing (HPP), and other emerging technologies for milk processing from the perspective of immune-active components retention and microbial safety, focusing on human, bovine, goat, camel, sheep, and donkey milk. Also, the detailed application, including the instrumental design, technical parameters, and obtained results, are discussed. Finally, future prospects and current limitations of nonthermal techniques as applied in milk processing are discussed. This review thereby describes the current state-of-the-art in nonthermal milk processing techniques and will inspire the development of such techniques for in-practice applications in milk processing.

16Impact of Tray and Freeze Drying on Physico-Chemical and Functional Properties of Underutilized ().PubMed

Aradhana Boruah, Pinku Chandra Nath, Prakash Kumar Nayak, et al.
Foods. 2025 Feb 19;14(4):705. doi: 10.3390/foods14040705.
Roxb. (), an underutilized minor fruit from Assam, holds significant potential as it exhibits substantial traditional medicinal properties. However, its preservation and utilization remain limited, necessitating effective processing techniques. This study aimed to compare the impact of tray drying and freeze drying on the physico-chemical, antioxidant, and functional properties of . Fresh fruits were processed using both methods, followed by detailed analyses of nutritional composition, phytochemical content, antioxidant activity, and functional properties. Freeze drying resulted in greater retention of moisture (12.42 ± 0.81%), protein (4.44 ± 0.19%), carbohydrate content (8.29 ± 0.31 g/100 g), and reducing sugar (1.95 ± 0.12%), along with prominent color quality, while no significant difference in ash content was found for either drying method employed. Phytochemical extraction using different solvents (water, n-hexane, 80% methanol, 80% ethanol, and 80% acetone) revealed that freeze-dried samples extracted with acetone had the highest total phenolic content (634.00 ± 1.73 mg GAE/100 g), while methanol extraction yielded the highest total flavonoid content (382.33 ± 1.52 mg QE/100 g). Tray drying, on the other hand, exhibited superior DPPH and FRAP when subjected to ethanol extract (80.24 ± 0.42% and 83.83 ± 0.46 mg/100 g, respectively) and metal chelation capacity (23.69 ± 2.09%). Additionally, functional properties, such as glucose adsorption capacity and α-amylase inhibition, were found to vary between drying techniques, with freeze-dried samples showing better glucose adsorption and tray-dried samples demonstrating greater α-amylase inhibition. FTIR analysis highlighted distinct structural attributes of bioactive compounds retained through both methods. The findings underscore the potential of freeze drying for nutrient preservation and tray drying for cost-effective applications, paving the way for the industrial valorization of as a functional food ingredient.

17Kinetics of Carotenoids Degradation during the Storage of Encapsulated Carrot Waste Extracts.PubMed

Vanja Šeregelj, Lorenzo Estivi, Andrea Brandolini, et al.
Molecules. 2022 Dec 10;27(24):8759. doi: 10.3390/molecules27248759.
The encapsulates of carrot waste oil extract improved the antioxidant properties of durum wheat pasta. The aim of this research was to study the kinetics of carotenoids degradation in the freeze-dried (FDE) and spray-dried (SDE) encapsulates of carrot waste extract during storage at four different temperatures (+4, +21.3, +30, +37 °C) up to 413 days by HPLC. Carotenoids levels decreased as a function of time and temperature, following zero-order kinetics. At 4 °C carotenes were stable for at least 413 days, but their half-lives decreased with increasing temperatures: 8-12 months at 21 °C; 3-4 months at 30 °C; and 1.5-2 months at 37 °C. The freeze-drying technique was more effective against carotenes degradation. An initial lag-time with no or very limited carotenes degradation was observed: from one week at 37 °C up to 3 months (SDE) or more (FDE) at 21 °C. The activation energies (Ea) varied between 66.6 and 79.5 kJ/mol, and Ea values tended to be higher in FDE than in SDE.

18Effect of high intensity ultrasound on main bioactive compounds, antioxidant capacity and color in orange juice.PubMed

Ximena Brenes, María Guevara, Eric Wong, et al.
Food Sci Technol Int. 2022 Dec;28(8):694-702. doi: 10.1177/10820132211050203. Epub 2021 Oct 9.
Ultrasound is a useful alternative to thermal processing that can be applied to many food products and juices to aid with enzymes and microorganism inactivation and to improve the efficiency of unit operations generally applied in the food industry. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of a high-intensity sonication treatment (frequency 20 kHz; intensity 39.4 W/cm) applied for treatment times from 0 to 105 min on the content of polyphenols, vitamin C, organic acids, and carotenoids, and on the hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidant capacity and color of orange juice. Treatments were performed in triplicate and data was statistically analyzed. Sonication time did not have a significant effect ( > 0.05) on total polyphenols, total vitamin C, organic acid, and carotenoid contents, lipophilic antioxidant capacity, or juice color. The hydrophilic antioxidant activity and the lutein content increased significantly ( < 0.05) with increased sonication time. These results may be useful as a baseline for the development of sonication treatments that could be used in combination with other traditional and emerging processing approaches to protect the most important bioactive compounds and quality properties of orange juice.

19Kinetic Study of Encapsulated β-Carotene Degradation in Dried Systems: A Review.PubMed

Vera Lavelli, Jolanta Sereikaitė
Foods. 2022 Feb 2;11(3):437. doi: 10.3390/foods11030437.
β-Carotene serves as a precursor of vitamin A and provides relevant health benefits. To overcome the low bioavailability of β-carotene from natural sources, technologies have been designed for its encapsulation in micro- and nano-structures followed by freeze-drying, spray-drying, supercritical fluid-enhanced dispersion and electrospraying. A technological challenge is also to increase β-carotene stability, since due to its multiple conjugated double bonds, it is particularly prone to oxidation. This review analyzes the stability of β-carotene encapsulated in different dried micro- and nano-structures by comparing rate constants and activation energies of degradation. The complex effect of water activity and glass transition temperature on degradation kinetics is also addressed, since the oxidation process is remarkably dependent on the glassy or collapsed state of the matrix. The approaches to improve β-carotene stability, such as the development of inclusion complexes, the improvement of the performance of the interface between air and oil phase in which β-carotene was dissolved by application of biopolymer combinations or functionalization of natural biopolymers, the addition of hydrophilic small molecular weight molecules that reduce air entrapped in the powder and the co-encapsulation of antioxidants of various polarities are discussed and compared, in order to provide a rational basis for further development of the encapsulation technologies.

20Experimental Evaluation of Food-Grade Semi-Refined Carrageenan Toxicity.PubMed

Denys Pogozhykh, Yevgen Posokhov, Valeriy Myasoedov, et al.
Int J Mol Sci. 2021 Oct 16;22(20):11178. doi: 10.3390/ijms222011178.
The safety of food additives E407 and E407a has raised concerns in the scientific community. Thus, this study aims to assess the local and systemic toxic effects of the common food additive E407a in rats orally exposed to it for two weeks. Complex evaluations of the effects of semi-refined carrageenan (E407a) on rats upon oral exposure were performed. Local effects of E407a on the intestine were analyzed using routine histological stains and CD68 immunostaining. Furthermore, circulating levels of inflammatory markers were assessed. A fluorescent probe O1O (2- (2'-OH-phenyl)-5-phenyl-1,3-oxazole) was used for evaluating the state of leukocyte cell membranes. Cell death modes of leukocytes were analyzed by flow cytometry using Annexin V and 7-aminoactinomycin D staining. Oral administration of the common food additive E407a was found to be associated with altered small and large intestinal morphology, infiltration of the lamina propria in the small intestine with macrophages (CD68 cells), high systemic levels of inflammation markers, and changes in the lipid order of the phospholipid bilayer in the cell membranes of leukocytes, alongside the activation of their apoptosis. Our findings suggest that oral exposure to E407a through rats results in the development of intestinal inflammation.

21Dietary κ-carrageenan facilitates gut microbiota-mediated intestinal inflammation.PubMed

Wei Wu, Jiawei Zhou, Rongrong Xuan, et al.
Carbohydr Polym. 2022 Feb 1;277:118830. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118830. Epub 2021 Nov 2.
The inflammatory effects of carrageenan (CGN), a ubiquitous food additive, remains controversial. Gut microbiota and intestinal homeostasis may be a breakthrough in resolving this controversy. Here we show that, κ-CGN did not cause significant inflammatory symptoms, but it did cause reduced bacteria-derived short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and decreased thickness of the mucus layer by altering microbiota composition. Administration of the pathogenic bacterium Citrobacter rodentium, further aggravated the inflammation and mucosal damage in the presence of κ-CGN. Mucus layer degradation and altered SCFA levels could be reproduced by fecal transplantation from κ-CGN-fed mice, but not from germ-free κ-CGN-fed mice. These symptoms could be partially repaired by administering probiotics. Our results suggest that κ-CGN may not be directly inflammatory, but it creates an environment that favors inflammation by perturbation of gut microbiota composition and then facilitates expansion of pathogens, and this effect may be partially reversed by the introduction of probiotics.

22λ-carrageenan exacerbates Citrobacter rodentium-induced infectious colitis in mice by targeting gut microbiota and intestinal barrier integrity.PubMed

Wei Wu, Dongsheng Zhou, Rongrong Xuan, et al.
Pharmacol Res. 2021 Dec;174:105940. doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2021.105940. Epub 2021 Oct 16.
For nearly half a century, the scientific community has been unable to agree upon the safety profile of carrageenan (CGN), a ubiquitous food additive. Little is known about the mechanisms by which consumption of CGN aggravates the etiopathogenesis of murine colitis. However, analyses of gut microbiota and intestinal barrier integrity have provided a breakthrough in explaining the synergistic effect of CGN upon colitis. In Citrobacter rodentium-induced infectious murine colitis, inflammation and the clinical severity of gut tissue were aggravated in the presence of λ-CGN. Using fecal transplantation and germ-free mice experiments, we evaluated the role of intestinal microbiota on the pro-inflammatory effect of λ-CGN. Mice with high dietary λ-CGN consumption showed altered colonic microbiota composition that resulted in degradation of the colonic mucus layer, a raised fecal LPS level, and a decrease in the presence of bacterially derived short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). Mucus layer defects and altered fecal LPS and SCFA levels could be reproduced in germ-free mice by fecal transplantation from CGN-H-fed mice, but not from germ-free CGN-H-fed mice. Our results confirm that λ-CGN may create an environment that favors inflammation by altering gut microbiota composition and gut bacterial metabolism. The present study provides evidence that the "gut microbiota-barrier axis" could be an alternative target for ameliorating the colitis promoting effect of λ-CGN.

23Food additive emulsifiers and the risk of type 2 diabetes: analysis of data from the NutriNet-Santé prospective cohort study.PubMed

Clara Salame, Guillaume Javaux, Laury Sellem, et al.
Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2024 May;12(5):339-349. doi: 10.1016/S2213-8587(24)00086-X.
BACKGROUND: Experimental studies have suggested potential detrimental effects of emulsifiers on gut microbiota, inflammation, and metabolic perturbations. We aimed to investigate the associations between exposures to food additive emulsifiers and the risk of type 2 diabetes in a large prospective cohort of French adults. METHODS: We analysed data from 104 139 adults enrolled in the French NutriNet-Santé prospective cohort study from May 1, 2009, to April 26, 2023; 82 456 (79·2%) were female and the mean age was 42·7 years (SD 14·5). Dietary intakes were assessed with three 24 h dietary records collected over three non-consecutive days, every 6 months. Exposure to additive emulsifiers was evaluated through multiple food composition databases and ad-hoc laboratory assays. Associations between cumulative time-dependent exposures to food additive emulsifiers and the risk of type 2 diabetes were characterised with multivariable proportional hazards Cox models adjusted for known risk factors. The NutriNet-Santé study is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03335644). FINDINGS: Of 104 139 participants, 1056 were diagnosed with type 2 diabetes during follow-up (mean follow-up duration 6·8 years [SD 3·7]). Intakes of the following emulsifiers were associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes: total carrageenans (hazard ratio [HR] 1·03 [95% CI 1·01-1·05] per increment of 100 mg per day, p<0·0001), carrageenans gum (E407; HR 1·03 [1·01-1·05] per increment of 100 mg per day, p<0·0001), tripotassium phosphate (E340; HR 1·15 [1·02-1·31] per increment of 500 mg per day, p=0·023), acetyl tartaric acid esters of monoglycerides and diglycerides of fatty acids (E472e; HR 1·04 [1·00-1·08] per increment of 100 mg per day, p=0·042), sodium citrate (E331; HR 1·04 [1·01-1·07] per increment of 500 mg per day, p=0·0080), guar gum (E412; HR 1·11 [1·06-1·17] per increment of 500 mg per day, p<0·0001), gum arabic (E414; HR 1·03 [1·01-1·05] per increment of 1000 mg per day, p=0·013), and xanthan gum (E415, HR 1·08 [1·02-1·14] per increment of 500 mg per day, p=0·013). INTERPRETATION: We found direct associations between the risk of type 2 diabetes and exposures to various food additive emulsifiers widely used in industrial foods, in a large prospective cohort of French adults. Further research is needed to prompt re-evaluation of regulations governing the use of additive emulsifiers in the food industry for better consumer protection. FUNDING: European Research Council, French National Cancer Institute, French Ministry of Health, IdEx Université de Paris, and Bettencourt-Schueller Foundation.

24Randomized Controlled-Feeding Study of Dietary Emulsifier Carboxymethylcellulose Reveals Detrimental Impacts on the Gut Microbiota and Metabolome.PubMed

Benoit Chassaing, Charlene Compher, Brittaney Bonhomme, et al.
Gastroenterology. 2022 Mar;162(3):743-756. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2021.11.006. Epub 2021 Nov 11.
BACKGROUND & AIMS: Epidemiologic and murine studies suggest that dietary emulsifiers promote development of diseases associated with microbiota dysbiosis. Although the detrimental impact of these compounds on the intestinal microbiota and intestinal health have been demonstrated in animal and in vitro models, impact of these food additives in healthy humans remains poorly characterized. METHODS: To examine this notion in humans, we performed a double-blind controlled-feeding study of the ubiquitous synthetic emulsifier carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) in which healthy adults consumed only emulsifier-free diets (n = 9) or an identical diet enriched with 15 g per day of CMC (n = 7) for 11 days. RESULTS: Relative to control subjects, CMC consumption modestly increased postprandial abdominal discomfort and perturbed gut microbiota composition in a way that reduced its diversity. Moreover, CMC-fed subjects exhibited changes in the fecal metabolome, particularly reductions in short-chain fatty acids and free amino acids. Furthermore, we identified 2 subjects consuming CMC who exhibited increased microbiota encroachment into the normally sterile inner mucus layer, a central feature of gut inflammation, as well as stark alterations in microbiota composition. CONCLUSIONS: These results support the notion that the broad use of CMC in processed foods may be contributing to increased prevalence of an array of chronic inflammatory diseases by altering the gut microbiome and metabolome (ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT03440229).

25Dietary Emulsifier Sodium Stearoyl Lactylate Alters Gut Microbiota and Inhibits Bacterial Butyrate Producers.PubMed

Lisa Elmén, Jaime E Zlamal, David A Scott, et al.
Front Microbiol. 2020 May 15;11:892. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00892. eCollection 2020.
Dietary emulsifiers are widely used in industrially processed foods, although the effects of these food additives on human gut microbiota are not well studied. Here, we investigated the effects of five different emulsifiers [glycerol monoacetate, glycerol monostearate, glycerol monooleate, propylene glycol monostearate, and sodium stearoyl lactylate (SSL)] on fecal microbiota We found that 0.025% (w/v) of SSL reduced the relative abundance of the bacterial class Clostridia and others. The relative abundance of the families , , and was substantially reduced whereas that of and was increased. Given the marked impact of SSL on Clostridia, we used genome reconstruction to predict community-wide production of short-chain fatty acids, which were experimentally assessed by GC-MS analysis. SSL significantly reduced concentrations of butyrate, and increased concentrations of propionate compared to control cultures. The presence of SSL increased lipopolysaccharide, LPS and flagellin in cultured communities, thereby enhancing the proinflammatory potential of SSL-selected bacterial communities.

26Dietary emulsifiers consumption alters anxiety-like and social-related behaviors in mice in a sex-dependent manner.PubMed

Mary K Holder, Nicole V Peters, Jack Whylings, et al.
Sci Rep. 2019 Jan 17;9(1):172. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-36890-3.
Dietary emulsifiers carboxylmethylcellulose (CMC) and polysorbate 80 (P80) alter the composition of the intestinal microbiota and induce chronic low-grade inflammation, ultimately leading to metabolic dysregulations in mice. As both gut microbiota and intestinal health can influence social and anxiety-like behaviors, we investigated whether emulsifier consumption would detrimentally influence behavior. We confirmed that emulsifier exposure induced chronic intestinal inflammation, increased adiposity, and altered gut microbiota composition in both male and female mice, although the specific microboal taxa altered following emulsifier consumption occurred in a sex-dependent manner. Importantly, emulsifier treatment altered anxiety-like behaviors in males and reduced social behavior in females. It also changed expression of neuropeptides implicated in the modulation of feeding as well as social and anxiety-related behaviors. Multivariate analyses revealed that CMC and P80 produced distinct clustering of physiological, neural, and behavioral effects in male and female mice, suggesting that emulsifier treatment leads to a syndrome of sex-dependent changes in microbiota, physiology, and behavior. This study reveals that these commonly used food additives may potentially negatively impact anxiety-related and social behaviors and may do so via different mechanisms in males and females.

27Artificial Sweeteners Disrupt Tight Junctions and Barrier Function in the Intestinal Epithelium through Activation of the Sweet Taste Receptor, T1R3.PubMed

Aparna Shil, Oluwatobi Olusanya, Zaynub Ghufoor, et al.
Nutrients. 2020 Jun 22;12(6):1862. doi: 10.3390/nu12061862.
The breakdown of the intestinal epithelial barrier and subsequent increase in intestinal permeability can lead to systemic inflammatory diseases and multiple-organ failure. Nutrition impacts the intestinal barrier, with dietary components such as gluten increasing permeability. Artificial sweeteners are increasingly consumed by the general public in a range of foods and drinks. The sweet taste receptor (T1R3) is activated by artificial sweeteners and has been identified in the intestine to play a role in incretin release and glucose transport; however, T1R3 has not been previously linked to intestinal permeability. Here, the intestinal epithelial cell line, Caco-2, was used to study the effect of commonly-consumed artificial sweeteners, sucralose, aspartame and saccharin, on permeability. At high concentrations, aspartame and saccharin were found to induce apoptosis and cell death in intestinal epithelial cells, while at low concentrations, sucralose and aspartame increased epithelial barrier permeability and down-regulated claudin 3 at the cell surface. T1R3 knockdown was found to attenuate these effects of artificial sweeteners. Aspartame induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production to cause permeability and claudin 3 internalization, while sweetener-induced permeability and oxidative stress was rescued by the overexpression of claudin 3. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that the artificial sweeteners sucralose, aspartame, and saccharin exert a range of negative effects on the intestinal epithelium through the sweet taste receptor T1R3.

28Sucralose enhances the susceptibility to dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) induced colitis in mice with changes in gut microbiota.PubMed

Mengru Guo, Xinran Liu, Yiwei Tan, et al.
Food Funct. 2021 Oct 4;12(19):9380-9390. doi: 10.1039/d1fo01351c.
Sucralose is one of the most widely used artificial sweeteners, free of nutrients and calories. Its approval and uses correlate with many of the worldwide epidemiological changes in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Multiple animal studies by us and others showed that sucralose exacerbated ileitis in SAMP1/YitFc mice and 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis in rats. In this study, we further investigated the effect of sucralose on dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis in mice and the associated mechanisms. Male C57BL/6 mice received 1.5 mg ml sucralose in drinking water for 6 weeks. Then, 2.5% DSS was added to drinking water for 7 days to induce ulcerative colitis (UC). The results showed that, compared with the DSS group, administration of sucralose exacerbated the severity of colitis as indicated by the further decrease in body weight, increase in disease activity index (DAI) and the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, as well as the activation of the TLR5-MyD88-NF-κB signaling pathway, and the disturbances of intestinal barrier function, along with changes in the intestinal microbiota. Our findings indicate that sucralose may increase the susceptibility to DSS-induced colitis through causing dysbiosis of intestinal microbiota and damage to the intestinal barrier.

29The artificial sweetener neotame negatively regulates the intestinal epithelium directly through T1R3-signaling and indirectly through pathogenic changes to model gut bacteria.PubMed

Aparna Shil, Luisa Maria Ladeira Faria, Caray Anne Walker, et al.
Front Nutr. 2024 Apr 24;11:1366409. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2024.1366409. eCollection 2024.
INTRODUCTION: Recent studies have indicated considerable health risks associated with the consumption of artificial sweeteners. Neotame is a relatively new sweetener in the global market however there is still limited data on the impact of neotame on the intestinal epithelium or the commensal microbiota. METHODS: In the present study, we use a model of the intestinal epithelium (Caco-2) and microbiota ( and ) to investigate how physiologically-relevant exposure of neotame impacts intestinal epithelial cell function, gut bacterial metabolism and pathogenicity, and gut epithelium-microbiota interactions. RESULTS: Our findings show that neotame causes intestinal epithelial cell apoptosis and death with siRNA knockdown of T1R3 expression significantly attenuating the neotame-induced loss to cell viability. Similarly, neotame exposure results in barrier disruption with enhanced monolayer leak and reduced claudin-3 cell surface expression through a T1R3-dependent pathway. Using the gut bacteria models, and , neotame significantly increased biofilm formation and metabolites of , but not , reduced Caco-2 cell viability. In co-culture studies, neotame exposure increased adhesion capacity of and onto Caco-2 cells and invasion capacity of . Neotame-induced biofilm formation, -specific Caco-2 cell death, adhesion and invasion was identified to be meditated through a taste-dependent pathway. DISCUSSION: Our study identifies novel pathogenic effects of neotame on the intestinal epithelium or bacteria alone, and in co-cultures to mimic the gut microbiome. These findings demonstrate the need to better understand food additives common in the global market and the molecular mechanisms underlying potential negative health impacts.

30An integrative analysis reveals cancer risk associated with artificial sweeteners.PubMed

Jumin Xie, Ying Zhu, Zixuan Yang, et al.
J Transl Med. 2025 Jan 8;23(1):32. doi: 10.1186/s12967-024-06047-0.
BACKGROUND: Artificial sweeteners (AS) have been widely utilized in the food, beverage, and pharmaceutical industries for decades. While numerous publications have suggested a potential link between AS and diseases, particularly cancer, controversy still surrounds this issue. This study aims to investigate the association between AS consumption and cancer risk. METHODS: Targets associated with commonly used AS were screened and validated using databases such as CTD, STITCH, Super-PRED, Swiss Target Prediction, SEA, PharmMapper, and GalaxySagittarius. Cancer-related targets were sourced from GeneCards, OMIM, and TTD databases. AS-cancer targets were identified through the intersection of these datasets. A network visualization ('AS-targets-cancer') was constructed using Cytoscape 3.9.0. Protein-protein interaction analysis was conducted using the STRING database to identify significant AS-cancer targets. GO and KEGG enrichment analyses were performed using the DAVID database. Core targets were identified from significant targets and genes involved in the 'Pathways in cancer' (map05200). Molecular docking and dynamics simulations were employed to verify interactions between AS and target proteins. Pan-cancer and univariate Cox regression analyses of core targets across 33 cancer types were conducted using GEPIA 2 and SangerBox, respectively. Gene chip datasets (GSE53757 for KIRC, GSE21354 for LGG, GSE42568 for BRCA, and GSE46602 for PRAD) were retrieved from the GEO database, while transcriptome and overall survival data were obtained from TCGA. Data normalization and identification of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were performed on these datasets using R (version 4.3.2). Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) was employed to identify critical pathways in the gene expression profiles between normal and cancer groups. A cancer risk prognostic model was constructed for key targets to further elucidate their significance in cancer initiation and progression. Finally, the HPA database was utilized to investigate variations in the expression of key AS-cancer target proteins across KIRC, LGG, BRCA, PRAD, and normal tissues. RESULTS: Seven commonly used AS (Aspartame, Acesulfame, Sucralose, NHDC, Cyclamate, Neotame, and Saccharin) were selected for study. A total of 368 AS-cancer intersection targets were identified, with 48 notable AS-cancer targets, including TP53, EGFR, SRC, PIK3R1, and EP300, retrieved. GO biological process analysis indicated that these targets are involved in the regulation of apoptosis, gene expression, and cell proliferation. Thirty-five core targets were identified from the intersection of the 48 significant AS-cancer targets and genes in the 'Pathways in cancer' (map05200). KEGG enrichment analysis of these core targets revealed associations with several cancer types and the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. Molecular docking and dynamics simulations confirmed interactions between AS and these core targets. HSP90AA1 was found to be highly expressed across the 33 cancer types, while EGF showed the opposite trend. Univariate Cox regression analysis demonstrated strong associations of core targets with KIRC, LGG, BRCA, and PRAD. DEGs of AS-cancer core targets across these four cancers were analyzed. GSEA revealed upregulated and downregulated pathways enriched in KIRC, LGG, BRCA, and PRAD. Cancer risk prognostic models were constructed to elucidate the significant roles of key targets in cancer initiation and progression. Finally, the HPA database confirmed the crucial function of these targets in KIRC, LGG, BRCA, and PRAD. CONCLUSION: This study integrated data mining, machine learning, network toxicology, molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulations, and clinical sample analysis to demonstrate that AS increases the risk of kidney cancer, low-grade glioma, breast cancer, and prostate cancer through multiple targets and signaling pathways. This paper provides a valuable reference for the safety assessment and cancer risk evaluation of food additives. It urges food safety regulatory agencies to strengthen oversight and encourages the public to reduce consumption of foods and beverages containing artificial sweeteners and other additives.

31Low and no calorie sweeteners, diet and health: an updated overview.PubMed

María de Lourdes Samaniego Vaesken, Teresa Partearroyo, Gregorio Varela Moreiras
Nutr Hosp. 2021 Jan 13;37(Spec No2):24-27. doi: 10.20960/nh.03352.
Introduction: currently, there is a great deal of controversy surrounding the potential health benefits and risks associated with the use of low and/or no calorie sweeteners (LNCS). Objective: in the present work, the objective was to briefly address the current role of LNCS consumption in the diet and its effects on health. Methods: a brief narrative review of the most recent tudies and policies available was carried out. Results: a limited number of representative studies on the consumption of LNCS and their effect on health are presently available. However, these mostly indicate that the consumption of LNCS can be a useful tool along with other nutritional strategies in the treatment of overweight, obesity, diabetes and the prevention of caries when used appropriately in the context of a balanced diet and physical activity. Still, it is necessary to be cautious with the consumption of certain sweeteners since the effects of LNCS on the intestinal microbiota or its effect on premature deliveries, among others, have not been fully elucidated. Conclusions: it is essential to carry out further studies in order to clarify/establish the safety and value of sweeteners as food ingredients/additives in the medium/long term, in a model of increasing consumption as a consequence of the reformulation of many foods.

32Impacts of food additives on gut microbiota and host health.PubMed

Ping Li, Ru Qu, Ming Li, et al.
Food Res Int. 2024 Nov;196:114998. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2024.114998. Epub 2024 Sep 13.
The rapidly expanding food industry necessitates the use of food additives to achieve specific purposes. However, this raises new concerns in food safety due to the reported negative impacts of food additives on gut microbiota and host health, particularly in the context of continuous worldwide urbanization. This review summarizes the existing studies on the effects of different types of commonly used food additives on gut microbiota alteration, intestinal barrier disruption, metabolism disorder, and neurobehavior changes. These food additives, including emulsifiers, low-calorie sweeteners, inorganic nanoparticles, and preservatives, have been found to exert multifaceted impacts, primarily adverse effects, highlighting the potential risks associated with food additive exposure in various chronic diseases. Further research is warranted to elucidate the specific mechanisms, determine the relevance of these findings to humans, and clarify the suitability of certain food additives for vulnerable populations. It is crucial to note that natural food additives are not inherently superior to synthetic ones in terms of safety. Rigorous evaluation is still warranted before their widespread application in the food industry. Additionally, the potential synergistic effects of commonly used food additives combination in specific food categories on gut microbiota and host metabolism should be investigated to understand their relevance in real-world scenarios.

33Association of Low-Calorie Sweeteners with Selected Circulating Biomarkers of Intestinal Permeability in the Cancer Prevention Study-3 Diet Assessment Substudy.PubMed

Xinyu Zhu, Allison C Sylvetsky, Marjorie L McCullough, et al.
J Nutr. 2025 Apr;155(4):1226-1235. doi: 10.1016/j.tjnut.2025.02.022. Epub 2025 Mar 1.
BACKGROUND: Low-calorie sweeteners (LCSs) are popular sugar substitutes and have been shown to alter the gut microbiota, which raises concerns about potential impacts on intestinal permeability. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to examine cross-sectional associations between LCS consumption and circulating biomarkers of intestinal permeability. METHODS: We analyzed data from 572 United States adults participating in the Cancer Prevention Study-3 Diet Assessment Substudy who provided ≤2 fasting blood samples, collected 6 mo apart, to measure biomarkers of intestinal permeability including antibodies to flagellin (anti-flagellin), lipopolysaccharide (anti-LPS), and total antibodies; and ≤6 24-h dietary recalls, collected over the course of 12 mo, to estimate average intake of LCS including aspartame, sucralose, acesulfame-potassium, and saccharin. Multivariable linear regression, adjusted for sociodemographic characteristics, lifestyle factors, and medical history, was used to examine associations between LCS consumption and levels of intestinal permeability biomarkers by comparing mean differences in biomarkers among lower (>0 to ≤50th percentile) (n = 158) and higher (>50th percentile) LCS consumers (n = 157) than nonconsumers. A linear trend across nonconsumers and the 2 consumption categories was evaluated using a continuous variable based on the median LCS intake (median = 0, 11.3, and 124.2 mg/d for non-, lower, and higher consumers, respectively). RESULTS: Among the 572 study participants, the mean age was 52.5 y, 63.3% were female, 60.7% were on-Hispanic White, and 55.1% reported consuming LCS-containing products. Greater LCS consumption was not associated with anti-flagellin, anti-LPS, or total antibodies. Additionally, no associations between specific types of LCS and intestinal permeability biomarkers were observed. CONCLUSIONS: The results of our study did not demonstrate an association between LCS consumption and intestinal permeability biomarkers. Further research with larger sample sizes and randomized controlled trials is needed to confirm our findings.

34Food contaminants: Impact of food processing, challenges and mitigation strategies for food security.PubMed

Arumugam Vignesh, Thomas Cheeran Amal, Krishnan Vasanth
Food Res Int. 2024 Sep;191:114739. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2024.114739. Epub 2024 Jul 6.
Food preparation involves the blending of various food ingredients to make more convenient processed food products. It is a long chain process, where each stage posing a risk of accumulating hazardous contaminants in these food systems. Protecting the public health from contaminated foods has become a demanding task in ensuring food safety. This review focused on the causes, types, and health risks of contaminants or hazardous chemicals during food processing. The impact of cooking such as frying, grilling, roasting, and baking, which may lead to the formation of hazardous by-products, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), heterocyclic amines (HCAs), acrylamide, advanced glycation end products (AGEs), furan, acrolein, nitrosamines, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) and trans-fatty acids (TFAs). Potential health risks such as carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and cardiovascular effects are emerging as a major problem in the modern lifestyle era due to the increased uptakes of contaminants. Effects of curing, smoking, and fermentation of the meat products led to affect the sensory and nutritional characteristics of meat products. Selecting appropriate cooking methods include temperature, time and the consumption of the food are major key factors that should be considered to avoid the excess level intake of hazardous contaminants. Overall, this study underscores the importance of understanding the risks associated with food preparation methods, strategies for minimizing the formation of harmful compounds during food processing and highlights the need for healthy dietary choices to mitigate potential health hazards.

35Dietary Acrylamide: A Detailed Review on Formation, Detection, Mitigation, and Its Health Impacts.PubMed

Indira Govindaraju, Maidin Sana, Ishita Chakraborty, et al.
Foods. 2024 Feb 12;13(4):556. doi: 10.3390/foods13040556.
In today's fast-paced world, people increasingly rely on a variety of processed foods due to their busy lifestyles. The enhanced flavors, vibrant colors, and ease of accessibility at reasonable prices have made ready-to-eat foods the easiest and simplest choice to satiate hunger, especially those that undergo thermal processing. However, these foods often contain an unsaturated amide called 'Acrylamide', known by its chemical name 2-propenamide, which is a contaminant formed when a carbohydrate- or protein-rich food product is thermally processed at more than 120 °C through methods like frying, baking, or roasting. Consuming foods with elevated levels of acrylamide can induce harmful toxicity such as neurotoxicity, hepatoxicity, cardiovascular toxicity, reproductive toxicity, and prenatal and postnatal toxicity. This review delves into the major pathways and factors influencing acrylamide formation in food, discusses its adverse effects on human health, and explores recent techniques for the detection and mitigation of acrylamide in food. This review could be of interest to a wide audience in the food industry that manufactures processed foods. A multi-faceted strategy is necessary to identify and resolve the factors responsible for the browning of food, ensure safety standards, and preserve essential food quality traits.

36Determination of Acrylamide in Coffee, Cereals, Baby Food, Cocoa, Dry Pet Food, Potato Products, Vegetable Crisps, Biscuits, Tea, Nuts, and Spices by LC-MS/MS in a Single-Laboratory Validation: First Action 2023.01.PubMed

Aude Bebius, Frédérique Reding, Viviane Theurillat, et al.
J AOAC Int. 2024 May 2;107(3):453-463. doi: 10.1093/jaoacint/qsae007.
BACKGROUND: Acrylamide (AA) is a process contaminant naturally formed during the cooking of starchy food at high temperatures. Considering existing risks of misquantification inherent to the analysis of AA, an AOAC initiative raised the need for a consensus standard to determine AA in a broad variety of food. OBJECTIVE: A quantitative LC-MS/MS method for AA determination in food was validated in a single-laboratory study. Targeted performance requirements in terms of target matrixes, limit of quantification, recovery, and precision were as defined per Standard Method Performance Requirement (SMPR®) 2022.006. METHOD: The proposed method derives from EN 16618:2015 standard pending modifications brought to the (1) sample preparation (simplified, potentially automated); (2) scope of application (significantly extended); and (3) LC conditions (improved selectivity). Confirmatory detection of AA is conducted by LC-MS/MS in the Selected Reaction Monitoring mode (SRM), and isotopic dilution was applied for quantification approach using either 2,3,3-d3-acrylamide (d3-AA), or 13C3-2,3,3-d3-acrylamide (13C3-d3-AA) as labeled internal standard. RESULTS: A total of 16 laboratory samples from nine matrix categories were included in the validation process. A full validation was conducted on coffee (instant, roast), infant cereal, cocoa powder, pet food (croquettes), tea (green tea), spices (black pepper), and nuts (roasted almonds) with satisfactory performances both in terms of recovery (97-108%) and precision (RSDr and RSDiR <12%). The method applicability was further demonstrated through the analysis of quality control materials and reference materials including French fries, potato crisps, vegetable crisps, instant coffee, infant food, and biscuits (cookies), with accuracy values determined within a 94-107% range. CONCLUSIONS: The performances of the presented method are in agreement with the acceptance criteria stipulated in SMPR 2022.006. HIGHLIGHTS: The Expert Review Panel for acrylamide approved the present method as AOAC Official First Action 2023.01.

37Comprehensive Study on the Acrylamide Content of High Thermally Processed Foods.PubMed

Dilini N Perera, Geeth G Hewavitharana, S B Navaratne
Biomed Res Int. 2021 Feb 23;2021:6258508. doi: 10.1155/2021/6258508. eCollection 2021.
Acrylamide (AA) formation in starch-based processed foods at elevated temperatures is a serious health issue as it is a toxic and carcinogenic substance. However, the formation of more AA entangles with modern-day fast food industries, and a considerable amount of this ingredient is being consumed by fast food eaters inadvertently throughout the world. This article reviews the factors responsible for AA formation pathways, investigation techniques of AA, toxicity, and health-related issues followed by mitigation methods that have been studied in the past few decades comprehensively. Predominantly, AA and hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) are produced via the Maillard reaction and can be highlighted as the major heat-induced toxins formulated in bread and bakery products. Epidemiological studies have shown that there is a strong relationship between AA accumulation in the body and the increased risk of cancers. The scientific community is still in a dearth of technology in producing AA-free starch-protein-fat-based thermally processed food products. Therefore, this paper may facilitate the food scientists to their endeavor in developing mitigation techniques pertaining to the formation of AA and HMF in baked foods in the future.

38Acrylamide in Corn-Based Thermally Processed Foods: A Review.PubMed

Slađana Žilić, Valentina Nikolić, Burçe Ataç Mogol, et al.
J Agric Food Chem. 2022 Apr 13;70(14):4165-4181. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.1c07249. Epub 2022 Mar 31.
Widely consumed thermally processed corn-based foods can have a great contribution to acrylamide dietary intake, thus bearing a high public health risk and requiring attention and application of strategies for its reduction. This paper reviews the literature on the acrylamide content of corn-based food products present in the market around the world. The potential of corn for acrylamide formation due to its content of free asparagine and reducing sugars is described. Human exposure to acrylamide from corn-based foods is also discussed. The content of acrylamide in corn/tortilla chips, popcorn, and corn flakes, as widely consumed products all over the world, is reported in the literature to be between 5 and 6360 μg/kg, between <LOD and 2220 μg/kg and between <LOD and 1186 μg/kg, respectively. Although these products are important acrylamide sources in the common diet of all age populations, higher intake values occurred among younger generations.

39Mitigation effect of sodium alginate on acrylamide formation in fried potato chips system based on response surface methodology.PubMed

Hui Liu, Xuenan Li, Yuan Yuan
J Food Sci. 2020 Aug;85(8):2615-2621. doi: 10.1111/1750-3841.15343. Epub 2020 Jul 20.
Acrylamide is a known neurotoxin and probable carcinogen in humans. Researchers reported that foods rich in carbohydrates could generate high amounts of acrylamide at high temperatures. In recent years, hydrocolloids are applied to reduce acrylamide in thermally processed foods and the effect has been well proved. The present work was to investigate the effect of sodium alginate as the coating agent on acrylamide formation in fried potato chips by a Box-Behnken design. The optimized processing conditions were: sodium alginate at the concentration of 1.34%, frying time at 4.38 min, and frying temperature at 179 °C. The corresponding inhibition rate of acrylamide was 76.59%. Compared to the control group, the oil absorption of coating chips decreased significantly, whereas the addition of sodium alginate did not affect the quality of potato chips. Scanning electron microscope analysis revealed that coating with sodium alginate could effectively prevent oil uptake, which might contribute to acrylamide mitigation. Overall, sodium alginate significantly mitigated acrylamide formation in fried potato chips. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Sodium alginate could significantly reduce acrylamide formation in fried potato chips systems. Sodium alginate may therefore be a new mitigation strategy for acrylamide formation in commercial fried foods without prejudice to main quality properties valued by consumers.

40Excessive oil absorption and maillard reaction products in fried muscle foods: Formation mechanisms, potential health risks and mitigation strategies.PubMed

Ying Li, Fangda Sun, Xiufang Xia, et al.
Food Chem. 2025 Mar 15;468:142456. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.142456. Epub 2024 Dec 12.
Fried muscle foods are popular among consumers for their golden color, fried flavor, and crispy exterior paired with a tender interior. However, physicochemical reactions occurring during frying lead to the formation of harmful components. This review focuses on the formation mechanisms of excessive oil and Maillard reaction products (advanced glycation end products, and heterocyclic amines) in fried muscle foods including protein oxidation, starch gelatinization, and generation of carbonyls and free radicals. The gastrointestinal digestion, absorption, and potential health risks of these components are discussed. It also summarizes the measures to inhibit oil absorption in four ways, including reducing initial moisture content, controlling moisture migration, reducing frying oil usage, and reducing interfacial tension between oil and food. Finally, it reviews mitigation strategies of Maillard reaction products from two aspects: reducing precursors, and trapping intermediates. This review may help produce healthier fried muscle foods.

41Deep frying cooking oils promote the high risk of metastases in the breast-A critical review.PubMed

Kumar Ganesan, Baojun Xu
Food Chem Toxicol. 2020 Oct;144:111648. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111648. Epub 2020 Aug 1.
Deep-frying is the most common food preparation method, manifestations of color, taste, flavor, and fried consistency. The beneficial role of vegetable oils become deteriorate when repeatedly treated with higher temperature and air. Repeatedly heated cooking oils (RCO) produce various byproducts, containing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and aldehydes, well-known to be a carcinogenic, mutagenic, and tumorigenic properties. RCO is nowadays one of the often consumed media for cooking and frying, which intake can cause various unhealthy adverse effects including various cancer in the multiple organs. Hence, the present comprehensive study targets to provide the intake of RCO elevate the risks of human breast cancer. The data on RCO and its impacts were obtained via various electronic findings and library databases. Notable studies have confirmed that the effects of RCO have been attributed to their unfavorable effects, and underlying molecular mechanisms can also strongly promoting tumorigenic effects in the mammary organ.

42Effect of different cooking conditions on the profiles of Maillard reaction products and nutrient composition of hairtail (Thichiurus lepturus) fillets.PubMed

Wilson P Semedo Tavares, Shiyuan Dong, Weiya Jin, et al.
Food Res Int. 2018 Jan;103:390-397. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2017.10.063. Epub 2017 Oct 31.
Much attention has been given to investigate the formation of Maillard reaction products in thermal processing food due to potential health risks. This study aimed to the profiles of Maillard reaction products (MRPs) and changes of nutrient composition in hairtail (Thichiurus lepturus) fillets prepared by three cooking method: boiling, baking and frying. The N-carboxymethyllysine (CML) level ranged from non-detectable to 4.24mg/100g protein and furosine ranged from 4.25 to 20.95mg/100g protein. The levels of CML and furosine in boiled hairtail fillets were much lower than baked and fried ones. The formation of CML was only affected by the cooking method. The changes of the lipid and moisture content, and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) content in cooked hairtail fillet had different effects on the formation of different stages of Maillard reaction. Furosine level significantly correlated with absorbance in 420nm (r=0.74, p<0.05) and 280nm (r=0.73, p<0.05) and fluorescence Intensity (FI) (r=0.65, p<0.05), but did not correlate with CML. The CML level linearly correlated with the moisture (r=0.79, p<0.01) and lipid content (r=0.73, p<0.05), and the formation of TBARS value (r=0.92, p<0.01), but did not correlate with the FI. Overall, the findings may help to better control the cooking conditions of hairtail meat based on the profiles of MRPs.

43Relationships between food and diseases: What to know to ensure food safety.PubMed

Monica Gallo, Lydia Ferrara, Armando Calogero, et al.
Food Res Int. 2020 Nov;137:109414. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109414. Epub 2020 Jun 9.
In recent years, the concept of food has undergone a radical transformation to the point of attributing to foods, in addition to their nutritional and sensorial properties, an important role in maintaining health and psycho-physical well-being and in the prevention of certain diseases. However, foods can hide many pitfalls for human health. There are many critical points in food production processes and they can represent real risks of contamination or of unsafe food production for consumers. Proper conservation, physico-chemical and microbiological stability, cooking methods are fundamental control parameters to ensure the safety of food products. Generally, the development of a food-borne disease is due to specific conditions, such as the virulence of the microorganism present, the microbial load present in the food and the conditions of the host's immune system. Furthermore, the possible presence of other types of contaminants, in addition to microbial ones, can have implications for the health of consumers. Consequently, the rigorous compliance of personnel who work in contact with food during the phases of production, processing, transport and storage with hygienic rules is essential to guarantee food safety and prevent foodborne disease. So, in this review, major issues are addressed such as reviewing the major food-related causes of disease. From this point of view, the relevant microorganisms involved in food contamination (bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi and mycotoxins), are taken into account. In addition, potentially allergenic foods or foods most commonly associated with food intolerance, are also considered. Many adverse reactions of the body towards foods are caused by the treatments to which they are subjected in order to maintain unchanged organoleptic characteristics as long as possible over time. This is also a critical point for food contamination that is considered in this review. A section is reserved to food additives potentially capable of causing disorders to the human body. In addition to biological contamination, the important issues represented by chemical contamination caused by pesticides, heavy metals, contaminants produced involuntarily are also considered. In conclusion, this review highlights that to protect consumers from food-borne diseases, an integrated approach to food safety must be adopted which affects the entire food chain, from farm to fork.

44Microbial Contamination and Public Health: An Overview.PubMed

Alessia Tropea
Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022 Jun 17;19(12):7441. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19127441.
Food contamination with microbial agents can take place at any stage of the food chain, from farm to fork. For this reason, good hygienic and manufacturing practices must be followed along the entire food chain to prevent microbiological food contamination due to microbes which can cause high incidence of morbidity and mortality among consumers. Recent research have been focused on the implementation of innovative technologies for enhancing the quality and safety of food without compromising its organoleptic and nutritional characteristics. Studies should be addressed to the development of simple, less expensive, and fast tests for monitoring and controlling microbial food contamination, as well as to the development of new food manufacturing processes.

45Prevalence and molecular characterization of foodborne and human-derived Salmonella strains for resistance to critically important antibiotics.PubMed

Islam Sabeq, Dina Awad, Ahmed Hamad, et al.
Transbound Emerg Dis. 2022 Sep;69(5):e2153-e2163. doi: 10.1111/tbed.14553. Epub 2022 Apr 18.
The primary goals of this cross-sectional study were to screen various food/water, and human samples for the presence of Salmonella species, and to assess the phenotypic and genetic relationship between resistances found in food and human Salmonella isolates to critically important antibiotics. Between November 2019 and May 2021, 501 samples were randomly collected for Salmonella isolation and identification using standard culturing methods, biochemical, matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) and PCR techniques. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed on confirmed Salmonella species, and PCR was used to investigate the genetic components that confer these resistance traits. Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica was confirmed in 35 (6.99%) of the samples (raw food = 23, ready-to-eat food/drink [REF/D] = 5, human = 7). Seventeen of them were antibiotic-resistant to at least one class, and eight were multidrug-resistant (MDR) isolates (raw food = 7, human = 1). All Salmonella isolates were susceptible to carbapenems, third- and fourth-generation cephalosporins and monobactam antibiotics. Resistance phenotypes to aminoglycosides (48.57%), β-lactams (20%) and tetracycline (17.14%), as well as associated genes such as aadA, bla , bla and tetA, as well as dfrA and sul1, were prevalent in Salmonella isolates. Colistin resistance genotype (mcr1) was detected in three (8.57%) isolates recovered from egg, cattle mince and rabbit meat, and the total incidence was 14.29% when two isolates exhibited resistance phenotypes were considered. Furthermore, four (11.43%) MDR isolates shared the bla and bla genes, and one (2.86%) isolate contained three extended spectrum β-lactams producing genes (ESBL), namely bla , bla and bla . The gyrA gene was expressed by one of three foodborne Salmonella isolates (8.57%) with ciprofloxacin resistance phenotypes. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report from Egypt identifying colistin resistance in Salmonella enterica recovered from cattle minced meat and rabbit meat. Overall, the highest incidence rate of Salmonella enterica was found in cattle-derived products, and it was slightly more prevalent in RTE/D foods than in raw foods. Resistance to critical and clinically important antibiotics, particularly in Salmonella from RTE/D food, suggests that these antibiotics are being abused in the investigated area's veterinary field, and raises the potential of these isolates being transmitted to high-risk humans, which would be a serious problem. Future research using whole-genome sequencing is needed to clarify Salmonella resistance mechanisms to critically important antimicrobial agents or those exhibiting multidrug resistance.

46Multidrug-Resistant Salmonella enterica Isolated from Food Animal and Foodstuff May Also Be Less Susceptible to Heavy Metals.PubMed

Rui Figueiredo, Roderick M Card, Javier Nunez-Garcia, et al.
Foodborne Pathog Dis. 2019 Mar;16(3):166-172. doi: 10.1089/fpd.2017.2418. Epub 2018 Nov 24.
Salmonella enterica is a foodborne pathogen showing increasing multidrug resistance (MDR). We characterized the antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genotype using microarrays in a panel of 105 nontyphoidal S. enterica isolated from food animals and foodstuff. Nineteen isolates were chosen on the basis of their MDR and virulence for determination of heavy metal susceptibilities and screened by polymerase chain reaction for heavy metal resistance genes. Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) was performed on three isolates carrying clinically important AMR genes and the cdtB toxin gene to detect other heavy metal resistance mechanisms, and conjugation assays were performed to evaluate transfer of AMR/toxin genes with heavy metal resistance genes. AMR genotyping results showed isolates harbored between 1 and 12 mobile AMR genes, with 58% being classified as MDR. The tested subset of isolates showed reduced susceptibility to zinc (78%), copper (68%), silver (63%), arsenic (47%), and tellurite (26%); phenotypes that could be attributed to zitB (n = 32%), pcoA/pcoD (n = 32%), tcrB (n = 16%), arsB (n = 16%), silA/silE (n = 42%), and terF (n = 26%) genes. WGS confirmed the presence of other heavy metal resistance genes such as copA, cusA, and czcD. Isolates often harbored multiple heavy metal resistance genes. Two strains (Sal25 and Sal368) were able to conjugate with Escherichia coli J53 at a relatively high frequency (∼10 colony-forming units per recipient). Transformants selected in the presence of copper harbored either an IncHI2 (J53/Sal25 transconjugant) or IncF (J53/Sal368 transconjugant) plasmid with decreased susceptibilities to tellurite, zinc, copper, cobalt, arsenic, lead, mercury, and silver. bla and mcr-1 genes were also transferred to one transconjugant, and tet(M) and bla genes to the other. This work shows the presence of a diversity of AMR genes in this zoonotic pathogen, and suggests that heavy metals may contribute to selection of clinically important ones through the food chain, such as the plasmid-mediated colistin resistance gene mcr-1.

47Survival of Salmonella Typhi and Shigella dysenteriae in dehydrated infant formula.PubMed

James B Day, Devang Sharma, Nusrat Siddique, et al.
J Food Sci. 2011 Aug;76(6):M324-8. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2011.02268.x.
UNLABELLED: Powdered infant formula has previously been linked to the transmission of various bacterial pathogens in infants resulting in life-threatening disease and death. Survival studies of 2 common foodborne pathogens, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi and Shigella dysenteriae, in powdered infant formula have not been previously studied despite the potentially devastating consequences from ingestion of these organisms, particularly by newborns, in case of a natural or deliberate contamination event. Therefore, to better predict the risk of S. Typhi and S. dysenteriae infection from consumption of infant formula, the present study was undertaken to determine survival of these microorganisms in dry infant formula under varying atmospheric conditions. A 2-strain cocktail of S. Typhi and a 3-strain cocktail of S. dysenteriae were stored for up to 12 wk in dehydrated infant formula in an ambient air or nitrogen atmosphere. Viable counts of S. Typhi at 12 wk in infant formula revealed a 2.9- and 1.69-log decrease in ambient air and nitrogen atmosphere, respectively. Viable counts of S. dysenteriae at 12 wk in infant formula revealed a 0.81- and 0.42-log decrease in ambient air and nitrogen atmosphere, respectively. These results show that S. Typhi and S. dysenteriae can remain viable for prolonged periods of time in powdered infant formula, and the presence of nitrogen enhances survival. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Our goal in this work was to study the survival of S. Typhi and S. dysenteriae in dehydrated storage conditions in infant formula. This interest is partially generated by the possibility of using these 2 microorganisms to deliberately contaminate the food supply. The outcome of this study will help us to have a better idea how to respond and react to the risk of deliberate food contamination.

48Effect of dehydrated storage on the survival of Francisella tularensis in infant formula.PubMed

J B Day, H Nguyen, S K Sharma, et al.
Food Microbiol. 2009 Dec;26(8):932-5. doi: 10.1016/j.fm.2009.06.005. Epub 2009 Jun 12.
Francisella tularensis is a Gram-negative bacterium that can cause gastrointestinal or oropharyngeal tularemia in humans from ingestion of contaminated food or water. Despite the potential for accidental or intentional contamination of foods with F. tularensis, there are few studies on the long-term survivability of this organism in food matrices. Infant formula has previously been implicated as a vehicle for the transmission of a variety of bacterial pathogens in infants. In this study, we investigated the survival of F. tularensis in dehydrated infant formula under various storage conditions. F. tularensis was stored for up to 12 weeks in dehydrated infant formula in an ambient air, dry or nitrogen atmosphere. Viable counts of fresh F. tularensis at 12 weeks in infant formula revealed a 4.15, 3.37 and 3.72-log decrease in ambient air, dry and nitrogen atmosphere, respectively. D-values were calculated (in weeks) as 3.99, 4.68 and 4.47 in air, dry and nitrogen atmosphere, respectively.

49Occurrence of antibiotic resistance among isolated from raw and ready-to-eat food - phenotypic and genotypic characteristics.PubMed

Urszula Zarzecka, Wioleta Chajęcka-Wierzchowska, Anna Zadernowska
Int J Environ Health Res. 2022 Aug;32(8):1733-1744. doi: 10.1080/09603123.2021.1908522. Epub 2021 Mar 31.
The aim of this study was phenotypic and genotypic characterization of antibiotic-resistant food-borne . The largest number of isolates was identified as (42.4%) followed by (9.8%), (7.6% each), (6.6%), and (5.4% each). More than half of isolates (52.2%) were resistant to at least one antibiotic. The majority were resistant to amoxicillin-clavulanate (28.3%) and ampicillin (19.5%). ESBL(+) phenotype was showed by 26 isolates and AmpC(+) phenotype by 32 isolates. The gene was carried by 53.8% of ESBL-positive isolates, gene from CIT family by 43.8% of AmpC-positive isolates. Our results suggest that more attention should be paid to antibiotic resistance of food-borne . The presence of transmissible antibiotic resistance markers is an important criterion in the evaluation of food safety.

50Evaluation of the Relationship among Biogenic Amines, Nitrite and Microbial Diversity in Fermented Mustard.PubMed

Yangyang Yu, Lu Li, Yujuan Xu, et al.
Molecules. 2021 Oct 13;26(20):6173. doi: 10.3390/molecules26206173.
Biogenic amines (BAs) and nitrites are both considered harmful compounds for customer health, and are closely correlated with the microorganisms in fermented mustard (FM). In this study, BAs and nitrite contents in fifteen FM samples from different brands were analyzed. The concentrations of cadaverine in one sample and of histamine in one sample were above the toxic level. Moreover, five FM samples contained a high level of nitrite, exceeding the maximum residue limit (20 mg/kg) suggested by the National Food Safety Standard. Then, this study investigated bacterial and fungal communities by high-throughput sequencing analysis. and were identified as the major bacteria and fungi phylum, respectively. The correlations among microorganisms, BAs and nitrite were analyzed. Typtamine showed a positive correlation with and . Cadaverine and nitrite is positively correlated with . Furthermore, thirteen strains were selected from the samples to evaluate the accumulation and degradation properties of their BAs and nitrite. The results indicated that the isolates, including GZ-2 and SC-2, can significantly reduce BAs and nitrite in FM model experiments. This study not only assessed the contents of BAs and nitrite in FM samples, but also provided potential starter cultures for BAs and nitrite control in the FM products industry.

51[The hygiene of refrigerated and frozen foods].PubMed

H J Sinell
Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg B Umwelthyg Krankenhaushyg Arbeitshyg Prav Med. 1989 Apr;187(4-6):533-45.
Health and spoilage hazards arising from refrigerated and deep frozen foods may be due to - raw materials, e.g. pathogenic microorganisms which come from infected living animals or contaminate raw foods during handling. Psychrotrophic organisms have particular significance as pathogens or spoilage organisms as they can multiply also during refrigeration; - improper processing. Temperature abuse and incorrect time/temperature relations are main causes for microorganisms being not destroyed at the expected rate or even getting a chance of multiplying. Proper handling after refrigeration or frozen storage of foods ("hygiene of thawing") deserves also particular attention. - contamination, i.e. initial contamination of raw products which are ready for consumption without further processing (fruits, raw salads). Recontamination which follows a heat process is much more important and occurs before, during and after application of cold. In those cases, again, one has to distinguish between products which (a) are ready for consumption without a process (bakery and confectionary goods, ice cream, drinking milk) and (b) have to pass a process which reduces the bacterial load before consuming the food (ready to eat dishes or other foods ready for reheating in the home). Sites of increased hygienic hazard are a) lack of partitioning "clean" and "unclean" areas and processes, b) defects of sanitation and hygiene of personnel, c) defects of packaging, d) leakage during aseptic filling. Hazards are controlled through product and plant specific analysis of the process flow followed by continuous monitoring the "Critical Control Points". As an example, a report is given on a study on random samples taken from 180.000 prepackaged deep frozen menus which had been produced for a mass meeting. Microbiological monitoring of the process revealed time/temperature relations as critical control points of primary importance. Particular problems arose from any stoppage at the production line. Reliable means to assure food safety and protect consumer's health are HACCP concept based in plant control programs rather than sporadic microbiological monitoring of end products.

52[Hospital foodservice through the Cook Chill system: a two-year experience in a University teaching hospital, Italy].PubMed

Gianluigi Quaranta, Romina Sezzatini, Cinzia Turnaturi, et al.
Ig Sanita Pubbl. 2019 Jan-Feb;75(1):51-61.
The Authors present their two-year experience regarding an evaluation of the hygienic quality of ready-to-eat foods in a hospital foodservice, both for patients' meals and hospital staff, prepared by using the Cook Chill system. According to the microbiological parameters provided by International Guidelines, 23 of 27 food samples that were collected and analyzed were found to be satisfactory, one was acceptable and only three were unsatisfactory (two for aerobic colony count and one both for aerobic colony count and hygienic procedure). Escherchia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes, and Clostridium perfringens were absent in all of the analyzed products, The study results are encouraging and confirm the need to always verify that the different phases of production of hospital meals are correctly implemented, even when the foodservice is out-sourced. This has always been considered a priority in the study hospital, where the Health Department is at the forefront both in control and verification of food safety practices and in offering training activities, especially in view of the increased susceptibility of hospitalized patients.

53[Evaluation of good manufacturing practices in the elaboration of enteral formulas in public hospitals of Santiago (Chile)].PubMed

Sandra Lara González, C Domecq Jendres, Eduardo Atalah Samur
Nutr Hosp. 2013 Nov 1;28(6):2021-6.
BACKGROUND: The development of enteral formulas (FE) is subject to various risks of contamination. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), have worried about alerting, recommendations and documents released to prevent contamination the FE, suggesting the standardization and protocols for all procedures involved. OBJETIVES: The study was aimed to evaluate compliance with the technical criteria contained in a Guideline for Good Practice of Manufacture in relation to the development, maintenance and administration of enteral nutrition in hospitals of Santiago, in the Metropolitan Area. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The verification criteria considered Physical Plant, Equipment and Implementation, Hygienic and Sanitary Standards, Human Resources, Organization and Management, Safety and Warranty Quality Assurance. 639 criteria were defined, 309 risk Type 1, by mayor risk of producing pollution. The study was conducted by observing Central Units Enteral Formulas and interview with the caregiver. Medium of compliance for each group of criteria risk 1 and overall, was analyzed. RESULTS: A total of 14 public hospitals were studied. The degree of compliance with the 639 reached a median of 33.2% (p25-75 31.6%-40.4%), with the lowest value for physical plant with 27.9% (p25-75 23.9%-38.2%) and the highest for human resources with 52.4% (p25-75 44.1%-52.4%). Median compliance for risk criteria Type 1 was only 31.8% (p25-75 27.5%-41.2%). CONCLUSION: Most of the units tested, meets less than half of the internationals recommendations, or the Ministry of Health of Chile. It should develop protocols and train staff to ensure quality and safety in the development of enteral formulas and reduce risk of infection.

54Ultra-processed food exposure and adverse health outcomes: umbrella review of epidemiological meta-analyses.PubMed

Melissa M Lane, Elizabeth Gamage, Shutong Du, et al.
BMJ. 2024 Feb 28;384:e077310. doi: 10.1136/bmj-2023-077310.
OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the existing meta-analytic evidence of associations between exposure to ultra-processed foods, as defined by the Nova food classification system, and adverse health outcomes. DESIGN: Systematic umbrella review of existing meta-analyses. DATA SOURCES: MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Embase, and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, as well as manual searches of reference lists from 2009 to June 2023. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA FOR SELECTING STUDIES: Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of cohort, case-control, and/or cross sectional study designs. To evaluate the credibility of evidence, pre-specified evidence classification criteria were applied, graded as convincing ("class I"), highly suggestive ("class II"), suggestive ("class III"), weak ("class IV"), or no evidence ("class V"). The quality of evidence was assessed using the GRADE (Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluations) framework, categorised as "high," "moderate," "low," or "very low" quality. RESULTS: The search identified 45 unique pooled analyses, including 13 dose-response associations and 32 non-dose-response associations (n=9 888 373). Overall, direct associations were found between exposure to ultra-processed foods and 32 (71%) health parameters spanning mortality, cancer, and mental, respiratory, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, and metabolic health outcomes. Based on the pre-specified evidence classification criteria, convincing evidence (class I) supported direct associations between greater ultra-processed food exposure and higher risks of incident cardiovascular disease related mortality (risk ratio 1.50, 95% confidence interval 1.37 to 1.63; GRADE=very low) and type 2 diabetes (dose-response risk ratio 1.12, 1.11 to 1.13; moderate), as well as higher risks of prevalent anxiety outcomes (odds ratio 1.48, 1.37 to 1.59; low) and combined common mental disorder outcomes (odds ratio 1.53, 1.43 to 1.63; low). Highly suggestive (class II) evidence indicated that greater exposure to ultra-processed foods was directly associated with higher risks of incident all cause mortality (risk ratio 1.21, 1.15 to 1.27; low), heart disease related mortality (hazard ratio 1.66, 1.51 to 1.84; low), type 2 diabetes (odds ratio 1.40, 1.23 to 1.59; very low), and depressive outcomes (hazard ratio 1.22, 1.16 to 1.28; low), together with higher risks of prevalent adverse sleep related outcomes (odds ratio 1.41, 1.24 to 1.61; low), wheezing (risk ratio 1.40, 1.27 to 1.55; low), and obesity (odds ratio 1.55, 1.36 to 1.77; low). Of the remaining 34 pooled analyses, 21 were graded as suggestive or weak strength (class III-IV) and 13 were graded as no evidence (class V). Overall, using the GRADE framework, 22 pooled analyses were rated as low quality, with 19 rated as very low quality and four rated as moderate quality. CONCLUSIONS: Greater exposure to ultra-processed food was associated with a higher risk of adverse health outcomes, especially cardiometabolic, common mental disorder, and mortality outcomes. These findings provide a rationale to develop and evaluate the effectiveness of using population based and public health measures to target and reduce dietary exposure to ultra-processed foods for improved human health. They also inform and provide support for urgent mechanistic research. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION: PROSPERO CRD42023412732.

55Ultra-processed food consumption and metabolic disease risk: an umbrella review of systematic reviews with meta-analyses of observational studies.PubMed

Jia-Le Lv, Yi-Fan Wei, Jia-Nan Sun, et al.
Front Nutr. 2024 Jan 31;11:1306310. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2024.1306310. eCollection 2024.
BACKGROUND AND AIMS: There is an ongoing debate on whether to advocate reducing ultra-processed food (UPF) in dietary guidelines to control metabolic disease (such as obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus [T2DM]). We aimed to summarize the evidence from systematic reviews with meta-analyses between UPF consumption and metabolic diseases risk, assess the credibility, and verify the robustness of these associations. METHODS: We systematically searched PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, and Cochrane Library databases from their inception to July 15, 2023, to identify relevant systematic reviews with meta-analyses. We used the random-effects model to evaluate the summary effect size, along with 95% confidence interval and prediction interval. We also assessed heterogeneity, evidence of small-study effects and excess significance bias, and categorized the credibility of each association based on quantitative umbrella review criteria. Additionally, we conducted subgroup and sensitivity analyses to assess the robustness of associations based on continents, study design, dietary assessment methods, definition methods of UPF, population, and units of UPF consumption. RESULTS: Overall, 6 systematic reviews with 13 meta-analyses were included. Three (23.08%) meta-analyses were classified as highly suggestive evidence for meeting the criteria that associations were significant at < 10, had more than 1,000 cases, and presented the largest study with significance at < 0.05. Among them, the highest UPF consumption quantile was associated with an increased risk of obesity (OR = 1.55, 95% CI: 1.36-1.77) when compared with the lowest UPF consumption quantile. The highest UPF consumption quantile was associated with an increased risk of T2DM (RR = 1.40, 95% CI: 1.23-1.59) when compared with the lowest UPF consumption quantile, and a 10% increase in UPF consumption (% g/d) was associated with an increased risk of T2DM (RR = 1.12, 95% CI: 1.10-1.13). Meanwhile, the robustness of these associations was verified by a series of subgroup and sensitivity analyses. CONCLUSION: UPF consumption may be a risk factor for several metabolic diseases. However, well-designed studies are still needed to verify our findings in the future.

56Impact of ultra-processed foods consumption on the burden of obesity and type 2 diabetes in Belgium: a comparative risk assessment.PubMed

Claudia Gutierrez-Ortiz, Leonor Guariguata, Claire Dénos, et al.
BMC Public Health. 2025 Mar 22;25(1):1097. doi: 10.1186/s12889-025-22304-3.
BACKGROUND: A high consumption of ultra-processed foods (UPFs) has been related to several chronic diseases such as obesity and type 2 diabetes. This study aimed to estimate the proportion of the burden of obesity and type 2 diabetes in Belgium that could be attributed to the consumption of UPFs. METHODS: A comparative-risk assessment framework was used. A literature search and a dose-response meta-analysis between UPFs intake and obesity and type 2 diabetes were performed. The risks were extracted from the curve dose-response meta-analysis and extrapolated to the mean of UPFs consumption by strata (5-year age category/sex/region) using the 2014/2015 Belgian Food Consumption Survey. The population attributable fraction and the attributable burden were then calculated for the prevalence of obesity and type 2 diabetes, and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) for type 2 diabetes. RESULTS: From the meta-analysis, for every 10% increase in UPFs intake (g/day), there was a 13% increase in risk of developing type 2 diabetes (RR:1.13, 95%IC 1.12-1.15, p<0.001) and for every 10% increase of energy intake from UPFs (kcal/day), there was a 5% increase in risk of developing obesity (RR:1.05, 95%IC 0.99-1.13, p=0.1321). Using these estimates, 21% of cases (277 056/1 286 454) of obesity in Belgium in 2014/2015 could be attributed to the UPFs intake. Similarly, for type 2 diabetes in Belgium in 2014/2015, 23% of cases (53 348/227 502) and 24% of DALYs (7 998/34 034) were attributed to UPFs consumption. CONCLUSIONS: The sizeable impact of UPFs on the burden of obesity and type 2 diabetes in Belgium emphasizes the need to design and implement policies to address UPF consumption in Belgium.

57Ultra-Processed Food and Chronic Kidney Disease Risk: A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Recommendations.PubMed

Kristin E Leonberg, Manish R Maski, Tammy M Scott, et al.
Nutrients. 2025 Apr 30;17(9):1560. doi: 10.3390/nu17091560.
Ultra-processed foods (UPFs) are formulations of ingredients that are mostly of exclusive industrial use and may contain additives like artificial colors, flavors, or stabilizers. The sale and consumption of these foods have been increasing despite their associations with increased risk for several non-communicable diseases, including chronic kidney disease (CKD). Compared to less processed and perishable foods, UPFs have longer shelf stability, are widely accessible, and are convenient. They also tend to be more affordable and lower in nutritional quality. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis (PROSPERO ID: CRD42023488201) was to investigate whether consumption of UPF is associated with a higher risk of CKD in adults. We completed a systematic search using Medline, EMBASE, CINAHL, and Cochrane Central databases to identify observational studies published since the wide acceptance of UPF classification and conducted a random-effects model to pool the risk estimates. A total of seven studies met the inclusion criteria for the systematic review, of which four were eligible for meta-analysis. Across these studies, there were 19,645 incident CKD cases from individuals free of baseline CKD. Using a random-effects model, higher UPF intake was significantly associated with increased CKD risk (pooled log-hazard ratio = 0.17; 95% CI: 0.07-0.28; < 0.001). Given the substantial evidence from this systematic review and meta-analysis indicating an association between UPF and CKD, it is recommended for public health policies to address this risk. Promoting dietary guidelines that encourage the consumption of minimally processed foods could potentially mitigate the prevalence of CKD and improve overall public health outcomes.

58Ultra-processed food consumption and the risk of incident chronic kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies.PubMed

Bingjie Xiao, Jinxian Huang, Linyi Chen, et al.
Ren Fail. 2024 Dec;46(1):2306224. doi: 10.1080/0886022X.2024.2306224. Epub 2024 Feb 12.
BACKGROUND: Recent individual studies have indicated that ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption may be associated with the incidence of chronic kidney disease (CKD). We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis based on those longitudinal studies evaluating the relationship between UPF consumption and the risk of incident CKD, and synthesizing the results. METHOD: PubMed, Embase, The Cochrane Library, Web of Science, and Scopus were searched from inception through 22 March 2023. Any longitudinal studies evaluating the relationship between UPF consumption and the risk of incident CKD were included. Two researchers independently conducted the literature screening and data extraction. RR and its 95% CI were regarded as the effect size. The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) was applied to assess the quality of the studies included, and the effect of UPF consumption on the risk of incident CKD was analyzed with STATA version 15.1. This study's protocol was registered in PROSPERO (CRD42023411951). RESULTS: Four cohort studies with a total of 219,132 participants were included after screening. The results of the meta-analysis suggested that the highest UPF intake was associated with an increased risk of incident CKD (RR = 1.25; 95% CI: 1.18-1.33). CONCLUSIONS: High-dose UPF intake was associated with an increased risk of incident CKD. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. Thus, more standardized clinical studies and further exploration of the mechanisms are needed in the future.

59Ultra-processed food consumption and cancer risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis.PubMed

Irja Minde Isaksen, Simon Nitter Dankel
Clin Nutr. 2023 Jun;42(6):919-928. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2023.03.018. Epub 2023 Mar 30.
BACKGROUND: Ultra-processed foods (UPF) have become a staple of the diet in many countries, concomitant with increases in non-communicable diseases including cancer. AIM: The aim of this systematic literature review was to evaluate associations between the consumption of UPF and cancer risk. METHODS: A systematic literature search for observational studies investigating the association between cancer risk and UPF consumption, determined by the NOVA classification system, was performed. Random-effects meta-analyses were conducted. Independent review and risk of bias assessment was performed independently by the authors using the National Institutes of Health's Study Quality Assessment Tools. RESULTS: Eleven reports were identified, including eight retrospective case-control studies and three prospective cohorts. The outcome was risk of total cancer and/or one or more of the following cancers: colorectal, breast, prostate, pancreatic, chronic lymphocytic leukemia and central nervous system tumors. Nine studies reported a significant positive association between UPF intake and all the assessed cancers except prostate, after adjustment for confounding factors including obesity and total energy intake. A 10% increment in the diet's proportion of UPF was associated with increased risk of overall cancer (HR = 1.13, 95% CI 1.07 to 1.18) and breast cancer (HR = 1.11, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.21). In addition, a high intake of UPF was associated with increased risk of colorectal cancer (OR = 1.30, 95% CI 1.11 to 1.51) and pancreatic cancer (HR = 1.49, 95% CI 1.07 to 2.07). More modest associations were found for chronic lymphocytic leukemia and central nervous system tumors. Common limitations of several of the studies included no prior assessment of diet before known diagnosis (the case-control studies), higher participation rates among cases, and likely misclassification of several foods as UPF or non-UPF. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, the available suggestive evidence shows a consistent significant association between intake of UPF and the risk of overall and several cancers, including colorectal-, breast- and pancreatic cancer. These data may inform updated dietary guidelines, policy makers and the public towards improving public health.

60Association between ultra-processed foods and risk of cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis.PubMed

Ying Lian, Gang-Pu Wang, Guo-Qiang Chen, et al.
Front Nutr. 2023 Jun 8;10:1175994. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1175994. eCollection 2023.
BACKGROUND: Despite increasing evidence that has shown the association of ultra-processed foods (UPFs) with cancer risk, the results remain inconclusive. We, therefore, conducted the meta-analysis to clarify the association by including recently published studies. METHODS: A comprehensive search was conducted in PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science to identify all relevant studies from inception to January 2023. To pool data, fixed-effects or random-effects models were used where appropriate. Subgroup analyses, sensitivity analyses, and publication bias tests were performed. RESULTS: A total of 13 studies (4 cohort studies and 9 case-control studies) were included in the analysis, with a total of 625,738 participants. The highest UPFs consumption was associated with increased risk of colorectal cancer (OR = 1.23, 95% CI: 1.10-1.38), colon cancer (OR = 1.25, 95% CI: 1.14-1.36), and breast cancer (OR = 1.10, 95% CI: 1.00-1.20) but not rectal cancer (OR = 1.18, 95% CI: 0.97-1.43) and prostate cancer (OR = 1.03, 95% CI: 0.93-1.12). In addition, the subgroup analyses showed that a positive association between UPFs consumption and colorectal cancer was observed among men (OR = 1.31, 95% CI: 1.15-1.50), whereas no significant association was observed among women (OR = 1.10, 95% CI: 0.94-1.29). CONCLUSION: The present meta-analysis suggests that high UPFs consumption is associated with a significantly increased risk of certain site-specific cancers, especially the digestive tract and some hormone-related cancers. However, further rigorously designed prospective and experimental studies are needed to better understand causal pathways.

61Ultra-Processed Food Consumption and Gastrointestinal Cancer Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.PubMed

Gilmara Coelho Meine, Rafael Veiga Picon, Paula Arruda Espírito Santo, et al.
Am J Gastroenterol. 2024 Jun 1;119(6):1056-1065. doi: 10.14309/ajg.0000000000002826. Epub 2024 Apr 8.
INTRODUCTION: Ultra-processed food (UPF) intake has been associated with a higher risk of obesity, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases. The initial data on the relationship between UPF consumption and cancer risk were derived from retrospective observational studies with conflicting results. This systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies aimed to investigate the association between UPF consumption and gastrointestinal cancer risk. METHODS: PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane databases were searched for prospective cohort studies that compared the highest vs the lowest level of UPF consumption according to NOVA food classification and reported the risk of gastrointestinal cancers by subsite. The association with cancer was quantified as hazard ratios (HR) using a random-effects model. RESULTS: Five prospective cohort studies were included in this review comprising 1,128,243 participants (241,201 participants in the highest and 223,366 in the lowest levels of UPF consumption). The mean follow-up ranged from 5.4 to 28 years. The highest UPF consumption was significantly associated with an increased risk of colorectal cancer (HR 1.11; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.03-1.21; P = 0.01; I2 = 31%), colon cancer (HR 1.12; 95% CI 1.02-1.23; P = 0.02; I2 = 0%), and non-cardia gastric cancer (HR 1.43; 95% CI 1.02-2.00; P = 0.04; I2 = 0%) compared with the lowest UPF intake. However, no association was found between high UPF consumption and hepatocellular, esophageal, pancreatic, gastric cardia, and rectal cancer. DISCUSSION: The highest level of UPF consumption was significantly associated with colorectal and non-cardia gastric cancer.

62Consumption of fast foods and ultra-processed foods and breast cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis.PubMed

Mehdi Karimi, Reyhaneh Rabiee, Farnaz Hooshmand, et al.
Glob Health Res Policy. 2025 Jul 1;10(1):25. doi: 10.1186/s41256-025-00425-x.
BACKGROUND: The increasing consumption of fast foods (FFs) and ultra-processed foods (UPFs) worldwide has raised concerns due to their association with carcinogenic compounds and potential links to various cancers. However, this evidence about breast cancer risk remains inconsistent. This study aimed to meta-analyze the association between FFs and UPFs consumption and the risk of breast cancer in females. METHODS: A comprehensive search on online databases was conducted from inception to May 2025, and relevant study data were extracted. The meta-analysis utilized odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) as effect size measures. Subgroup analyses, heterogeneity assessment, publication bias, and sensitivity analyses were performed to ensure robustness. All statistical analyses were conducted using STATA. RESULTS: The pooled analysis of 17 observational studies showed a significant association between the highest FFs and UPFs consumption and increased breast cancer risk (OR 1.25, 95% CI [1.09-1.43], p = 0.001). Subgroup analysis revealed a significant positive association between FFs and UPFs consumption and breast cancer risk in case-control studies, but not in cohort studies or menopausal status and a significant association was observed in studies with sample sizes > 1000 and < 1000. Furthermore, the association was significant in Latin America when BMI adjustment was considered for 'yes' and 'no'. CONCLUSIONS: This meta-analysis identified a significant association between the consumption of FFs and UPFs and an increased risk of breast cancer, with high intake linked to a 25% greater risk. These findings suggest that diets high in UPFs may play a role in breast cancer development. As UPF consumption continues to rise, public health strategies and regulatory policies targeting food processing, marketing, labeling, and accessibility are essential for cancer risk reduction and prevention.

63Ultra-processed food consumption is linked to an increased risk of chronic respiratory diseases: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.PubMed

Tefera Chane Mekonnen, Zumin Shi, Bereket Gebremichael, et al.
Clin Nutr ESPEN. 2025 Aug;68:647-659. doi: 10.1016/j.clnesp.2025.06.011. Epub 2025 Jun 12.
BACKGROUND: Chronic respiratory diseases (CRDs) are a leading cause of global mortality, with dietary factors, including ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption, contributing to their burden. The relationship between UPF intake and CRD risk in adults remains unclear. OBJECTIVES: This study evaluates epidemiological evidence linking UPF exposure to overall CRD risk and cause-specific respiratory conditions. METHODS: A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted using PubMed, Embase, PsycINFO, Scopus, ProQuest, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library databases, covering studies from 2009 to January 2024. Cohort studies examining UPF exposure and CRD risk were included. Risk of bias was assessed using the National Institute of Health tool, and NutriGrade scoring evaluated the quality of meta-evidence. Adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) were pooled using random-effects meta-analysis. RESULTS: Six cohort studies (k = 18) involving 948,428 participants and 11,341 CRD events were analyzed. Higher UPF exposure was associated with an increased CRD risk but not lung cancer. Each 10 % increase in UPF intake corresponded to a 19 % higher CRD risk (relative risk [RR] = 1.19; 95 % confidence interval [CI]:1.004-1.40; NutriGrade = moderate) but showed no significant association with lung cancer (RR = 1.09; 95 % CI: 0.88-1.38; NutriGrade = very low). Results were consistent across sensitivity analyses. CONCLUSIONS: Greater UPF consumption is linked to higher CRD risk, underscoring the need for public health interventions to reduce UPF exposure and mitigate CRD burden. High study heterogeneity highlights the need for further mechanistic research. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION: PROSPERO CRD42022345920.

64Ultra-processed food consumption and risk of chronic respiratory diseases mortality among adults: evidence from a prospective cohort study.PubMed

Tefera Chane Mekonnen, Yohannes Adama Melaku, Zumin Shi, et al.
Eur J Nutr. 2024 Jun;63(4):1357-1372. doi: 10.1007/s00394-024-03356-4. Epub 2024 Feb 28.
PURPOSE: The purpose of the study was to determine the relationships between ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption and risk of mortality due to chronic respiratory diseases (CRDs) overall, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and lung cancer. METHODS: A total of 96,607 participants aged 55 years and over were included from the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal and Ovarian (PLCO) cancer trial. Dietary intake was measured using food frequency questionnaire. Cox regression was fitted to estimate the risk of all-cause mortality and mortality due to CRDs overall, COPD and lung cancer associated with UPF intake. Competing risk regression was used to account for deaths from other causes and censoring. RESULTS: During the follow-up of 1,379,655.5 person-years (median 16.8 years), 28,700 all-cause, 4092 CRDs, 2015 lung cancer and 1,536 COPD mortality occurred. A higher intake of UPF increased the risk of mortality from CRDs overall by 10% (HR 1.10; 95% CI 1.01, 1.22) and COPD by 26% (HR 1.26; 95% CI 1.06, 1.49) but not associated with lung cancer mortality risk (HR 0.97; 95% CI 0.84, 1.12). However, the risk of lung cancer increased by 16% (HR 1.16; 95% CI 1.01, 1.34) in the highest UPF intake after multiple imputation. Dose-response relationships existed for CRDs and COPD mortality but not lung cancer. CONCLUSION: UPF consumption was associated with an increased risk of CRD mortality. The association between UPF consumption and lung cancer mortality is inconclusive and only significant when multiple imputation was applied.

65Association between consumption of ultra-processed foods and hyperuricemia: TCLSIH prospective cohort study.PubMed

Tingjing Zhang, Shinan Gan, Mingxu Ye, et al.
Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2021 Jun 30;31(7):1993-2003. doi: 10.1016/j.numecd.2021.04.001. Epub 2021 May 7.
BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Emerging evidence suggests that consumption of ultra-processed foods (UPF) plays a role in the development of chronic diseases, but evidence of their influence on hyperuricemia is limited. We therefore designed a cohort study to examine whether UPF consumption increase the risk of hyperuricemia in adults. METHODS AND RESULTS: This was a prospective study (n = 18,444) performed in Tianjin, China from 2013 to 2019. Participants that were aged 18 years and over and with no history of hyperuricemia, were followed up for 1-6 years (median follow-up duration = 4.2 years). UPF consumption was assessed by a validated semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire. Hyperuricemia was defined as serum uric acid levels ≥7.0 mg/dL in males and ≥ 6 mg/dL in females. Multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to assess the association between UPF consumption and the risk of hyperuricemia. Restricted cubic spline regression was used to estimate the dose-response association between UPF consumption and risk of hyperuricemia. During follow-up period, the incidence of hyperuricemia was 20.3% in general population (27.7% in males and 13.2% in females). In the final multivariate models, the hazard ratios (95% confidence interval) for hyperuricemia across energy adjusted UPF consumption quartiles were 1.00 (reference), 1.04 (0.94, 1.14), 1.11 (1.01, 1.23), 1.16 (1.05, 1.28) (p for trend = 0.02) in general population. CONCLUSIONS: This population-based prospective cohort study suggests that increased consumption of UPF is independently associated the risk of hyperuricemia.

66The association of ultra-processed food consumption with adult mental health disorders: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of 260,385 participants.PubMed

Seyadeh Narges Mazloomi, Sepide Talebi, Sanaz Mehrabani, et al.
Nutr Neurosci. 2023 Oct;26(10):913-931. doi: 10.1080/1028415X.2022.2110188. Epub 2022 Sep 12.
OBJECTIVE: We aimed to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies examining the relationship between ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption and the risk of mental health disorders. METHODS: The ISI Web of Science, PubMed/MEDLINE, and Scopus databases were searched without date restriction until 28 December 2021. Data were extracted from 26 studies, including 260,385 participants from twelve countries. Risk ratios for mental health disorders were pooled by a random-effects model. RESULTS: Meta-analyses suggested that UPF consumption was associated with an increased risk of depression (RR = 1.28; 95% CI: 1.19, 1.38; I= 61.8%; = 0.022) but not anxiety (RR = 1.35; 95% CI: 0.86, 2.11; I= 77.8%; = 0.198). However, when analyzed for the dietary assessment method, UPF consumption was significantly associated with an enhanced risk of depression among studies utilizing food frequency questionnaires (RR = 1.31; 95% CI: 1.21, 1.41; I= 60.0%; < 0.001) as opposed to other forms of dietary recall approaches. Additionally, for every 10% increase in UPF consumption per daily calorie intake, 11% higher risk of depression (RR = 1.11; 95% CI: 1.01, 1.17; I= 88.9%; < 0.001) was observed among adults. Dose-response analysis further emphasized a positive linear association between UPF consumption with depression risk (p-nonlinearity = 0.819, p-dose-response = < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate that UPF consumption is related to an enhanced depressive mental health status risk. There may be different causes for this increased risk, and further studies are needed to investigate if there is a causal relationship between consumption of UPF and mental health.

67Dietary Patterns and Major Depression: Results from 15,262 Participants (International ALIMENTAL Study).PubMed

Yannis Achour, Guillaume Lucas, Sylvain Iceta, et al.
Nutrients. 2025 May 4;17(9):1583. doi: 10.3390/nu17091583.
BACKGROUND: Different patterns of food consumption may be associated with a differential risk of depression. Differences in dietary patterns between men and women and across different age groups have been reported, but their influence on the risk of depression has not been fully explored. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the associations between dietary patterns and risk of depression across sex and age groups to identify vulnerable subpopulations, which may inform targeted prevention and intervention strategies. METHODS: The ALIMENTAL study was a cross-sectional, online international survey conducted between 2021 and 2023. Dietary data were collected using a validated food frequency questionnaire; depression data were collected using a self-reported validated questionnaire. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to identify distinct food consumption patterns. Multivariate analyses were then conducted to assess the associations between these patterns and depression, adjusting for multiple potential confounders. RESULTS: Among 15,262 participants without chronic diseases or current psychotropic treatments, 4923 (32.2%) were classified in the depression group. Among those aged 18-34, the PCA-derived factor of ultra-processed foods consumption was significantly associated with increased risk of depression in both sexes with similar odds ratios (women 1.21, 95% confidence interval (CI): (1.15; 1.27), men 1.21, 95% CI: (1.07-1.18)). In women aged 18-34, the PCA factors for sodas (aOR 1.10, 95% CI: (1.06; 1.95) and canned and frozen foods (aOR 1.10, 95% CI: (1.04; 1.15) were associated with an increased risk of depression. In participants aged 35-54 years, the association between ultra-processed foods and depression was only observed in women (35-54 years: aOR 1.30, 95% CI: (1.20; 1.42), ≥55 years: 1.41, 95% CI: (1.11; 1.79)), with a significant association between a higher adherence to the PCA-derived "healthy diet" factor (e.g., fruits, nuts, green vegetables) and a lower risk of depression (35-54 years: aOR 0.82, 95% CI: (0.75; 0.89), ≥55 years: aOR 0.79, 95% CI: (0.64; 0.97)). CONCLUSIONS: These results show significant differences between men and women and between age groups regarding associations between dietary patterns and the risk of depression. These findings can help better target public health interventions.

68Consumption of ultra-processed foods and mental health of pregnant women from the South of Brazil.PubMed

Fernanda Oliveira Meller, Caroline Dos Santos Costa, Micaela Rabelo Quadra, et al.
Br J Nutr. 2024 Jul 14;132(1):107-114. doi: 10.1017/S0007114524000783. Epub 2024 Apr 22.
The objective of this study is to evaluate the association between the consumption of ultra-processed foods (UPF) and the mental health of pregnant women from the South of Brazil. This is a cross-sectional study carried out in Criciúma, Brazil, through face-to-face interviews, from April to December 2022. Pregnant women aged 18 or older who underwent prenatal care in the forty-eight basic health care units of the municipality and who were in their third trimester of pregnancy were included. High consumption of UPF was considered as six or more items or subgroups of UPF consumed on the day before the interview, using the Nova-UPF screener. The mental health variables were depressive symptoms, stress, sadness and anxiety. Crude and adjusted analyses were conducted using the Fisher's exact test and the Poisson regression with robust variance. In total, 428 pregnant women were studied; most of them were aged between 20 and 25 years and were white. Pregnant women who presented high consumption of UPF were 1·42-fold (95 % CI 1·06, 1·92) more likely to experience anxiety and presented a prevalence 56 % (95 % CI 1·18, 2·07) higher of stress when compared with those who did not present high consumption of UPF. The prevalence of depressive symptoms and feelings of sadness was 1·31-fold (95 % CI 1·08, 1·60) and 3·41-fold (95 % CI 1·77, 6·58) higher among those with high consumption of UPF, respectively. The results suggest that diet quality is associated with the mental health of pregnant women. Promoting joint actions focused on food and nutritional education, and mental health, for pregnant women, is necessary.

69Processed and ultra-processed foods are associated with depression and anxiety symptoms in a cross-sectional sample of urban Lebanese adults.PubMed

Lamia Ghernati, Hani Tamim, Fatima Al Zahraa Chokor, et al.
Nutr Res. 2025 Jan;133:172-189. doi: 10.1016/j.nutres.2024.11.011. Epub 2024 Dec 9.
While low dietary quality has been linked to poor mental health, evidence on more direct relations of specific dietary quality indicators, namely degrees of food processing, with mental health disorders remains limited. This study aims to investigate the association between food groups' intakes, defined based on their degree of food processing, with depression and anxiety symptoms in a sample of Lebanese adults. We hypothesized that higher intakes of ultra-processed foods (UPF) will be related to higher risk of depression and anxiety while an opposite association will be observed for unprocessed or minimally processed foods (MPF). Data come from a Lebanese cross-sectional study (n = 188 adults). The NOVA classification was adopted for evaluating the intakes of the 4 food groups: unprocessed or minimally processed foods (MPF); processed culinary ingredients (PCI); processed foods (PF) and ultra-processed foods (UPF). Associations between food group intakes in quartiles with depression and anxiety symptoms were analyzed using multivariable regression analyses adjusted for several confounders. Median energy intake was 2481.65 (2617.2) kcal/d, with 36.12% of Total Energy Intakes coming from MPF, 29.71% from PF, 25.25% from UPF, and 5.75% from PCI. Among participants, 33% and 27.7% had elevated depression and anxiety symptoms, respectively. Higher PF intake was associated with significantly lower odds of both depression and anxiety symptoms while a higher UPF intake was associated with higher odds of depression. Results confirm the hypothesized links between UPF and adverse mental health outcomes and highlight the need for further studies on PF intakes and mental health given the culture-specific nature of foods constituting this group.

70Ultra-processed food consumption is linked to quality of life and mental distress among university students.PubMed

Yasemin Ertaş Öztürk, Zeynep Uzdil
PeerJ. 2025 Aug 25;13:e19931. doi: 10.7717/peerj.19931. eCollection 2025.
BACKGROUND: Ultra-processed foods (UPFs) are industrial formulations that typically contain little or no whole foods and are often high in added sugars, unhealthy fats, and sodium. Research indicates that higher intake of UPFs correlates with lower overall diet quality, which can exacerbate mental health issues such as anxiety and depression. This study aimed to assess the associations between UPF consumption with health-related quality of life, and mental distress in university students. METHOD: This cross-sectional study consisted of 595 students resident in Samsun/Türkiye. The data were collected face-to-face with a questionnaire. Linear regression analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between the UPFs (% energy), health-related quality of life components and mental distress score (MDS). Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was conducted to establish the optimal threshold levels regarding physical component summary (PCS12), mental component summary (MCS12) and MDS. RESULTS: The UPF ratios were negatively related to PCS12 (β = -0.112, = 0.005) and positively associated with MDS (β = 0.102, = 0.002) after adjusting for age, sex, physical activity, smoking duration, number of cigarettes and chronic disease. ROC analysis showed that those with UPF consumption above 45.096% had low physical quality of life, those above 50.999% had low mental quality of life, and those above 40.250% had moderate-to-high mental distress. CONCLUSION: Increased consumption of UPFs is associated with a decrease in physical quality of life and an increase in mental distress. Consuming more than 40% from UPFs can lead to mental and physical problems. There is a need for strategies to decrease the intake of UPFs to enhance both physical and mental wellbeing.

71Effects of ultra-processed foods on the microbiota-gut-brain axis: The bread-and-butter issue.PubMed

Zheyi Song, Renyi Song, Yanan Liu, et al.
Food Res Int. 2023 May;167:112730. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2023.112730. Epub 2023 Mar 21.
The topic of gut microbiota and the microbiota-gut-brain (MGB) axis has become the forefront of research and reports in the past few years. The gut microbiota is a dynamic interface between the environment, food, and the host, reflecting the health status as well as maintaining normal physiological metabolism. Modern ultra-processed foods (UPF) contain large quantities of saturated and trans fat, added sugar, salt, and food additives that seriously affect the gut and physical health. In addition, these unhealthy components directly cause changes in gut microbiota functions and microbial metabolism, subsequently having the potential to impact the neural network. This paper reviews an overview of the link between UPF ingredients and the MGB axis. Considerable studies have examined that high intake of trans fat, added sugar and salt have deleterious effects on gut and brain functions, but relatively less focus has been placed on the impact of food additives on the MGB axis. Data from several studies suggest that food additives might be linked to metabolic diseases and inflammation. They may also alter the gut microbiota composition and microbial metabolites, which potentially affect cognition and behavior. Therefore, we emphasize that food additives including emulsifiers, artificial sweeteners, colorants, and preservatives interact with the gut microbiota and their possible effects on altering the brain and behavior based on the latest research. Future studies should further investigate whether gut dysbiosis mediates the effect of UPF on brain diseases and behavior. This thesis here sheds new light on future research pointing to the potentially detrimental effects of processed food consumption on brain health.

72Neuronal Nitric Oxide Synthase Regulates Depression-like Behaviors in Shortening-Induced Obese Mice.PubMed

Ping Wang, Fan-Zhi Kong, Xiao-Hong Hong, et al.
Nutrients. 2022 Oct 14;14(20):4302. doi: 10.3390/nu14204302.
Shortening is mainly derived from the partial hydrogenation of palm oil and widely used in fast food. Food processed with shortening contains high levels of industrial trans fatty acids. Studies have shown that there is a correlation between industrial trans fatty acids, obesity, and depression. However, the regulatory effect of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) on depression in obese patients is still unknown. The purpose of this study was to explore mood changes in obese mice fed a high shortening diet, and to determine the regulatory effect of nNOS on depressive-like behaviors in obese mice. We used a high shortening diet-induced obesity mouse model to systematically assess the metabolic response, behavioral changes, prefrontal and hippocampal nNOS protein levels, and the effect of nNOS inhibitors (7-nitroindole) on depression-like behavior in obese mice. Interestingly, obese mice on a 9-week high-shortening diet developed short-term spatial working memory impairment and anxiety-like behavior, and obesity may be a risk factor for cognitive impairment and mood disorders. In animals fed a high shortening diet for 12 weeks, obese mice developed depression-like behavior and had significantly elevated levels of nNOS protein expression in the hippocampus and prefrontal lobe. Administration of the nNOS inhibitor 7-nitroindole could improve depression-like behaviors in obese mice, further suggesting that inhibition of nNOS is helpful for depression associated with obesity.

73Stress and the Consumption of Ultra-Processed Foods during COVID-19's Social Distancing: Are Mental Disorders Mediators in This Association? ELSA-Brasil Results.PubMed

Raphaela Kistenmacker Pires, Rosane Harter Griep, Patricia de Oliveira da Silva Scaranni, et al.
Nutrients. 2024 Jun 30;16(13):2097. doi: 10.3390/nu16132097.
The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated various determinants of mental disorders. Several behavioral changes were observed given this increase, including harmful health consequences, such as excessive consumption of ultra-processed foods (UPFs). To assess this relationship, we investigated the meditational role of symptoms of mental disorders (anxiety and depression) in the association between stress resulting from social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic and the consumption of UPFs in 3884 Brazilian public employees in a supplementary study of the ELSA-Brasil study. Structural equation models (SEMs) were estimated to assess the direct and indirect effects mediated by symptoms of mental disorders. The results suggested a significant and positive mediational effect of the symptoms of mental disorders on the association between the stress resulting from social distancing and the consumption of UPFs. These findings contribute to informing the need for policies and early interventions in potentially stressful situations, with a focus on the promotion of mental health, and may thus help prevent or reduce the consumption of unhealthy foods.

74Ultra-Processed Food Addiction: A Research Update.PubMed

Erica M LaFata, Kelly C Allison, Janet Audrain-McGovern, et al.
Curr Obes Rep. 2024 Jun;13(2):214-223. doi: 10.1007/s13679-024-00569-w. Epub 2024 May 18.
PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Detail recent advancements in the science on ultra-processed food (UPF) addiction, focusing on estimated prevalence rates and emerging health disparities; progress towards identifying biological underpinnings and behavioral mechanisms; and implications for weight management. RECENT FINDINGS: Notable developments in the field have included: (1) estimating the global prevalence of UPF addiction at 14% of adults and 15% of youths; (2) revealing health disparities for persons of color and those with food insecurity; (3) observing altered functioning across the brain-gut-microbiome axis; (4) providing early evidence for UPF withdrawal; and (5) elucidating poorer weight management outcomes among persons with UPF addiction. The breadth of recent work on UPF addiction illustrates continued scientific and public interest in the construct and its implications for understanding and treating overeating behaviors and obesity. One pressing gap is the lack of targeted interventions for UPF addiction, which may result in more optimal clinical outcomes for this underserved population.

753D printing technology for prepared dishes: printing characteristics, applications, challenges and prospects.PubMed

Jia Guo, Min Zhang, Chung Lim Law, et al.
Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2024 Nov;64(31):11437-11453. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2023.2238826. Epub 2023 Jul 22.
Prepared dishes are popular convenience foods that meet the needs of consumers who pursue delicious tastes while saving time and effort. As a new technology, food 3D printing (also known as food additive manufacturing technology) has great advantage in the production of personalized food. Applying food 3D printing technology in the production of prepared dishes provides the solution to microbial contamination, poor nutritional quality and product standardization. This review summarizes the problems faced by the prepared dishes industry in traditional food processing, and introduces the characteristics of prepared dishes and 3D printing technology. Food additives are suitable for 3D prepared dishes and novel 3D printing technologies are also included in this review. In addition, the challenges and possible solutions of the application of food 3D printing technology in the field of prepared dishes are summarized and explored. Food additives with advantages in heat stability, low temperature protection and bacteriostasis help to accelerate the application of 3D printing in prepared dishes industry. The combination of 3D printing technology with heat-assisted sources (microwave, laser) and non-heat-assisted sources (electrolysis, ultrasound) provides the possibility for the development of customized prepared dishes in the future, and also promotes more 3D food printing technologies for commercial use. It is noteworthy that these technologies are still at research stage, and there are challenges for the formulation design, the stability of printed ink storage, as well as implementation of customized nutrition for the elderly and children.

76The link between ultra-processed food consumption, fecal microbiota, and metabolomic profiles in older mediterranean adults at high cardiovascular risk.PubMed

Alessandro Atzeni, Adrián Hernández-Cacho, Nadine Khoury, et al.
Nutr J. 2025 Apr 17;24(1):62. doi: 10.1186/s12937-025-01125-5.
BACKGROUND: Ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption has been linked to adverse metabolic outcomes, potentially mediated by alterations in gut microbiota and metabolite production. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to explore the cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between NOVA-classified UPF consumption, fecal microbiota, and fecal metabolome in a population of Mediterranean older adults at high cardiovascular risk. METHODS: A total of 385 individuals, aged between 55 and 75 years, were included in the study. Dietary and lifestyle information, anthropometric measurements, and stool samples were collected at baseline and after 1-year follow-up. Fecal microbiota and metabolome were assessed using 16 S rRNA sequencing and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, respectively. RESULTS: At baseline, higher UPF consumption was associated with lower abundance of Ruminococcaceae incertae sedis (β = - 0.275, P = 0.047) and lower concentrations of the metabolites propionylcarnitine (β = - 0.0003, P = 0.013) and pipecolic acid (β = - 0.0003, P = 0.040) in feces. Longitudinally, increased UPF consumption was linked to reduced abundance of Parabacteroides spp. after a 1-year follow-up (β = - 0.278, P = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: High UPF consumption was associated with less favorable gut microbiota and metabolite profiles, suggesting a possible link to reduced short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production, altered mitochondrial energy metabolism, and impaired amino acid metabolism. These findings support the reduction of UPF consumption and the promotion of dietary patterns rich in fiber for better gut health. Further research is needed to confirm these associations and clarify the underlying mechanisms. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN89898870 ( https://doi.org/10.1186/ISRCTN89898870 ).

77Food additives and their implication in inflammatory bowel disease and metabolic syndrome.PubMed

Darislav Besedin, Rohan Shah, Charles Brennan, et al.
Clin Nutr ESPEN. 2024 Dec;64:483-495. doi: 10.1016/j.clnesp.2024.10.171. Epub 2024 Nov 8.
Over the past half a century the Western diet (WD) has become saturated with food additives. During the same time, there has been an increase in Western diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and metabolic syndrome (MetS). Emerging research has shown that food additives may be implicated in these diseases. However, critics have suggested that some of this research is problematic and may cause unnecessary fear amongst consumers. Here we review the emerging research concerning food additives and their implication in IBD and MetS, and criticisms thereof. To make the review more relevant to the WD, we only included common food additives, selected using supermarket data. Over a dozen common food additives from four categories were identified for their potential role in directly promoting these diseases. A consistent limitation of the research was the use of unrealistic human exposure conditions, such as high doses and modes of administration, as well as a lack of human trials. Another limitation was the absence of studies investigating the potential synergetic effect of consuming multiple food additives, as is common in the WD. Despite the limitations, there is some evidence that common food additives may be contributing to these additives, especially via their dysbiotic effect on the gut microbiota.

78Food Additives and Child Health.PubMed

Leonardo Trasande, Rachel M Shaffer, Sheela Sathyanarayana, et al.
Pediatrics. 2018 Aug;142(2). doi: 10.1542/peds.2018-1408.
Our purposes with this policy statement and its accompanying technical report are to review and highlight emerging child health concerns related to the use of colorings, flavorings, and chemicals deliberately added to food during processing (direct food additives) as well as substances in food contact materials, including adhesives, dyes, coatings, paper, paperboard, plastic, and other polymers, which may contaminate food as part of packaging or manufacturing equipment (indirect food additives); to make reasonable recommendations that the pediatrician might be able to adopt into the guidance provided during pediatric visits; and to propose urgently needed reforms to the current regulatory process at the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for food additives. Concern regarding food additives has increased in the past 2 decades, in part because of studies in which authors document endocrine disruption and other adverse health effects. In some cases, exposure to these chemicals is disproportionate among minority and low-income populations. Regulation and oversight of many food additives is inadequate because of several key problems in the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. Current requirements for a "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS) designation are insufficient to ensure the safety of food additives and do not contain sufficient protections against conflict of interest. Additionally, the FDA does not have adequate authority to acquire data on chemicals on the market or reassess their safety for human health. These are critical weaknesses in the current regulatory system for food additives. Data about health effects of food additives on infants and children are limited or missing; however, in general, infants and children are more vulnerable to chemical exposures. Substantial improvements to the food additives regulatory system are urgently needed, including greatly strengthening or replacing the "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS) determination process, updating the scientific foundation of the FDA's safety assessment program, retesting all previously approved chemicals, and labeling direct additives with limited or no toxicity data.

79Food Additives and Child Health.PubMed

Leonardo Trasande, Rachel M Shaffer, Sheela Sathyanarayana, et al.
Pediatrics. 2018 Aug;142(2). doi: 10.1542/peds.2018-1410.
Increasing scientific evidence suggests potential adverse effects on children's health from synthetic chemicals used as food additives, both those deliberately added to food during processing (direct) and those used in materials that may contaminate food as part of packaging or manufacturing (indirect). Concern regarding food additives has increased in the past 2 decades in part because of studies that increasingly document endocrine disruption and other adverse health effects. In some cases, exposure to these chemicals is disproportionate among minority and low-income populations. This report focuses on those food additives with the strongest scientific evidence for concern. Further research is needed to study effects of exposure over various points in the life course, and toxicity testing must be advanced to be able to better identify health concerns prior to widespread population exposure. The accompanying policy statement describes approaches policy makers and pediatricians can take to prevent the disease and disability that are increasingly being identified in relation to chemicals used as food additives, among other uses.