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  3. α1微球蛋白:ESRD血液净化新焦点与血液灌流前景

α1微球蛋白:ESRD血液净化新焦点与血液灌流前景

文献检索匿名用户发表于 2026年07月30日 20:193阅读
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一份期刊级别的学术综述文章,采用标准的学术论文格式,详细介绍α1微球蛋白的概述、临床意义及血液净化中的价值。包括以下方面,摘要、关键词、引言、二、α-1微球蛋白的基础生物学特性2.1 结构与合成2.2 多重生物学功能2.3 与其他尿毒症毒素的关系2.4 临床认知三、ESRD患者中A1M的病理生理学3.1 A1M积累的机制3.2 A1M缺乏导致的级联病理学3.3 A1M与肌肉消耗四、现行清除手段及其局限性五、A1M清除的临床必要性与目标六、血液灌流在A1M清除中的应用前景

α1微球蛋白:概述、临床意义及血液净化中的价值

摘要

α1微球蛋白(α1M)是一种低分子量血浆蛋白,因其独特的结构、多重生物学功能及其在肾脏疾病中的病理生理学作用,在临床医学中日益受到关注。作为一种脂钙蛋白,α1M具有抗氧化、组织清除、还原酶以及血红素和自由基结合活性,对机体具有保护性作用。本文将对α1M的基础生物学特性、在终末期肾病(ESRD)患者中的病理生理学意义、现行清除手段及其局限性,以及血液灌流在A1M清除中的应用前景进行详细综述。我们将探讨α1M作为肾小管功能障碍的标志物,在急性肾损伤(AKI)和慢性肾脏病(CKD)中的诊断和预后价值,并分析其在血液净化治疗,特别是血液灌流技术中作为中大分子毒素清除靶点的潜在价值。

关键词: α1微球蛋白;A1M;脂钙蛋白;终末期肾病;血液净化;血液灌流;肾脏疾病;生物标志物;中分子毒素

引言

α1微球蛋白(alpha 1-microglobulin, α1M),也称为蛋白HC,是一种最初由Ingemar Berggård从人尿中发现并分离出的低分子量血浆蛋白 。自其发现以来,α1M的独特性质和潜在临床意义引起了广泛研究。它是一种分子量约为26,000的糖蛋白,含有约20%的碳水化合物,具有电泳异质性,并携带一种棕色、未知的物质 。α1M在血清中以游离形式存在,也以高分子量复合物形式存在 。

在生理条件下,α1M是一种稳定的尿液指示蛋白,能够反映近端肾小管的急性和慢性功能障碍 。高尿液浓度通常提示肾小管药物毒性、间质性肾炎或慢性肾衰竭 。作为一种不属于急性期蛋白的稳定蛋白,α1M在广泛的生理条件下保持稳定,并且已经开发出敏感的免疫分析方法,使其在临床诊断中具有广阔的应用前景 。国际标准化仍有待完善 。血浆/血清水平的改变通常与肝肾功能受损有关,但在HIV感染和情绪障碍等临床情况中也观察到其水平升高 。尿液α1M提供了一种无创、廉价的诊断替代方案,用于诊断和监测泌尿道疾病,如重金属中毒、糖尿病肾病、尿流出障碍和肾盂肾炎等早期肾小管疾病 。

近年来的研究进一步揭示了α1M作为脂钙蛋白家族成员的多重生物学功能,包括抗氧化、组织清除和免疫调节等 。这些特性使其在细胞、器官和动物模型中显示出对氧化应激相关疾病的保护作用 。由于其独特的结构和功能,α1M在终末期肾病(ESRD)患者中积累,并被认为是中分子量毒素的重要组成部分,其清除对改善患者预后具有重要意义 。

本文旨在全面回顾α1M的基础生物学特性、其在ESRD患者中的病理生理学作用、目前清除手段的局限性、清除A1M的临床必要性与目标,以及血液灌流技术在A1M清除中的应用前景,以期为α1M在肾脏疾病诊断和治疗中的进一步研究提供理论依据。

二、α1-微球蛋白的基础生物学特性

2.1 结构与合成

α1微球蛋白(α1M),又称蛋白HC,是一种具有独特结构和生化特性的低分子量糖蛋白。它的分子量约为26,000道尔顿(26 kDa),含有约20%的碳水化合物成分 。在电泳上,α1M表现出异质性,并且携带一种棕色、尚未确定的物质 。

α1M被归类为脂钙蛋白(lipocalin)家族的一员 。脂钙蛋白家族是一类大型的小型细胞外蛋白,它们在序列相似性上表现出显著的异质性,但拥有高度保守的晶体结构 。这些蛋白通常具有桶状结构,能够结合并转运各种小分子,例如视黄醇 。α1M的特点是其黄色-棕色,这种颜色是由一系列小的发色团假体基团引起的,这些基团附着在脂钙蛋白口袋入口处的氨基酸残基上 。

α1M的合成过程也颇为独特。编码α1M的基因位于脂钙蛋白簇中,与编码Kunitz型蛋白酶抑制剂bikunin的基因相邻 。这两个基因共同翻译成一个α1M-bikunin前体 。随后,这个前体在高尔基体中被裂解,形成α1M和bikunin,然后它们分别分泌到血液中 。α1M主要由肝细胞合成 。

α1M在血液和大多数器官的结缔组织中都能发现,在身体细胞与环境之间的界面(如肺、肠道、肾脏和胎盘)中含量最为丰富 。其独特的生化性质,包括一个暴露于表面的强电负性硫醇基团C34,赋予了α1M还原酶、血红素结合和自由基结合等活性 。这些特性是其作为抗氧化剂和组织清除蛋白功能的基础 。

2.2 多重生物学功能

α1微球蛋白(α1M)作为脂钙蛋白家族的重要成员,展现出多方面的生物学功能,使其在生理和病理过程中扮演着关键角色。

1. 抗氧化和组织清除功能: α1M最显著的功能之一是其作为抗氧化剂和组织清除蛋白的作用 。其分子结构上的一个强电负性硫醇基团C34,位于脂钙蛋白桶状结构的开放端环1上,是其还原酶、血红素结合和自由基结合活性的驱动力 。这意味着α1M能够清除细胞外血红素基团,减轻由血红素诱导的氧化应激,并诱导天然组织修复机制 。这种抗氧化能力在多种氧化应激相关的医疗状况的细胞、器官和动物模型中均显示出保护作用 。例如,在子痫前期模型中,外源性给予A1M能够减轻细胞外胎儿血红蛋白诱导的氧化应激对兔肾脏和胎盘造成的损害,从而改善类似子痫前期的症状,如蛋白尿和肾小球滤过系数显著增加 。

2. 免疫调节特性: α1M被认为具有免疫抑制特性 。研究表明,α1M似乎能够干扰淋巴细胞对某些抗原的体外反应 。其在体内的分布与抗炎和保护作用一致,尤其在白细胞的免疫功能抑制方面表现出效果 。这种免疫调节作用可能对于维持组织稳态和防止过度炎症反应至关重要。

3. 小分子运输: 作为脂钙蛋白家族的一员,α1M具有结合和转运小分子的能力 。尽管其确切的生理功能尚不完全清楚,但有迹象表明α1M可能作为荧光、电荷异质性未知物质的排泄载体 。这一功能可能与其在身体细胞与环境界面(如肺、肠道、肾脏和胎盘)中的高丰度分布有关,提示其在这些部位可能参与清除或转运有害物质 。

4. 抑制肾结石形成和介导细菌粘附: α1M在临床诊断中日益重要,它似乎与抑制肾结石形成以及介导细菌粘附到聚合物表面有关 。这些功能进一步拓宽了α1M在泌尿系统健康和感染防御中的潜在作用。

5. 调节内质网活动和红细胞稳态: 最近的研究还表明,α1M在调节内质网活动和红细胞稳态方面具有新的生理作用 。这些发现提示α1M可能参与更广泛的细胞内过程,对其在维持细胞稳态和血液系统健康中的角色提出了新的视角。

总而言之,α1M通过其独特的结构和多种生化活性,执行着抗氧化、组织清除、免疫调节、小分子转运以及可能参与肾结石抑制和细菌粘附等多种生物学功能,并在维持机体健康和应对病理应激中发挥着重要作用。

2.3 与其他尿毒症毒素的关系

在终末期肾病(ESRD)患者中,由于肾脏清除功能的严重受损,体内会积累多种尿毒症毒素。α1微球蛋白(α1M)作为一种中分子量蛋白,其与ESRD患者体内其他尿毒症毒素的关系及其在血液净化中的清除效果备受关注。

1. 作为中分子量毒素的代表: α1M与β2微球蛋白(β2M)、甲状腺素结合蛋白(TTR)、视黄醇结合蛋白(RBP)等中分子量蛋白一同被认为是主要的尿毒症毒素。这些中分子量毒素的清除对于改善长期透析患者的死亡率和发病率至关重要 。在评估中分子量清除效果时,β2M、α1M和白蛋白泄漏量被用作衡量指标 。研究表明,β2M的去除率超过80%以及α1M的去除率超过35%对改善严重的透析相关症状是有益的 。

2. 与β2微球蛋白(β2M)的清除比较: β2M是另一种低分子量血浆蛋白,其蓄积被认为是透析相关淀粉样变(DRA)的主要原因 。α1M与β2M在透析治疗中经常被同时评估。多项研究发现,直接血液灌流结合聚甲基丙烯酸甲酯(PMMA)滤芯可以有效提高β2M的清除率 。值得注意的是,这种方法同时也能提高α1M的清除率 。PMMA纤维,特别是优化后的十字形纳米多孔PMMA纤维,表现出对β2M以及其他中分子量蛋白(如IL-6, α1M, TNF-α)的高效选择性吸附能力 。在比较扩大血液透析(EHD)与血液透析滤过(HDF)对尿毒症毒素的清除效果时,EHD显示出对α1M、YKL-40、补体因子D、肌红蛋白和κ-FLC的显著更高清除率,而β2M的清除率则与HDF非劣效 。

3. 与其他肾脏损伤标志物的关系: α1M作为肾小管功能障碍的标志物,与多种其他肾脏损伤生物标志物共同存在。在急性肾损伤(AKI)中,α1M与NGAL、KIM-1、IL-18、胱抑素C、胎球蛋白-A等一同被认为是潜在的AKI生物标志物 。它们可以用于检测早期肾损伤,区分AKI的不同病因,并预测临床结局 。在慢性肾脏病(CKD)中,尿液α1M与尿液肾损伤分子-1(KIM-1)、单核细胞趋化蛋白-1(MCP-1)以及血浆中的多种炎症和纤维化标志物(如FGF-23, TNF受体-1/2)一起,用于评估CKD进展和病理生理学 。在SPRINT研究中,尿液α1M与肾小球滤过率(eGFR)下降的独立关联不显著,但尿液β2M与eGFR的更快下降相关联,这提示不同肾小管损伤标志物在特定临床背景下的不同预测价值 。

4. 对SGLT2抑制剂治疗效果的影响: 最近一项关于SGLT2抑制剂依帕格列净(empagliflozin)对尿液生物标志物影响的研究显示,依帕格列净导致尿液白蛋白、总蛋白和尿调素(UMOD)显著降低,而α1M、DKK-3和NGAL则有所增加 。α1M的增加反映了近端肾小管重吸收功能的改变,可能与SGLT2抑制剂的肾脏生理学机制有关。这项研究强调了综合分析多种生物标志物以全面理解SGLT2抑制剂肾脏保护机制的重要性 。

总而言之,α1M在ESRD患者体内与其他中分子量尿毒症毒素相互关联,其清除对于改善患者预后具有重要意义。通过与β2M等其他标志物的比较研究,以及在不同血液净化方式下的清除效果评估,可以更全面地理解α1M在肾脏疾病中的病理生理学作用及其作为治疗靶点的潜在价值。

2.4 临床认知

α1微球蛋白(α1M)在临床上被广泛认为是肾脏功能,特别是近端肾小管功能障碍的重要生物标志物。其临床认知可以从以下几个方面进行总结:

1. 肾小管功能障碍的敏感标志物: α1M被公认为是一种稳定的尿液指示蛋白,能反映近端肾小管的急性和慢性功能障碍 。在多种肾脏疾病中,如肾小管药物毒性、间质性肾炎、慢性肾衰竭,以及早期肾小管疾病如重金属中毒、糖尿病肾病、尿流出障碍和肾盂肾炎等,尿液中α1M浓度升高是重要的诊断指标 。其作为肾小管重吸收功能标志物,在急性肾损伤(AKI)中与其他标志物(如β2微球蛋白、NAG、RBP、IL-18、NGAL、Netrin-1、KIM-1、Clusterin等)一同被用于早期诊断和监测 。

2. 慢性肾脏病(CKD)进展和预后的评估: α1M在CKD患者中的应用价值日益凸显。尿液α1M的排泄量与CKD的快速进展和较高的死亡率独立相关 。一项对163名CKD患者的研究显示,尿液α1M排泄量高的患者,其5年肾脏功能生存率和生命生存率显著低于α1M排泄量低的患者 。这表明尿液α1M可以作为预测CKD进展和死亡风险的独立指标 。在儿童CKD研究中,尿液α1M与其他生物标志物(如EGF、KIM-1、MCP-1等)一起,被用于改善CKD进展的预后和深入理解其病理生理学 。

3. 终末期肾病(ESRD)患者中中分子量清除的指标: 在接受透析治疗的ESRD患者中,α1M被视为中分子量毒素的重要代表。评估血液净化治疗(如血液透析滤过)对中分子量毒素的清除效果时,α1M的还原率是一个关键参数 。研究表明,α1M的还原率超过35%对改善严重的透析相关症状是有益的 。此外,PMMA膜在血液灌流中显示出有效清除α1M的能力,这对于管理透析相关并发症具有潜在益处 。

4. 子痫前期中的潜在治疗靶点: 除了肾脏疾病,α1M还在其他病理状况中展现出临床意义。例如,在子痫前期(一种严重的妊娠相关疾病)的动物模型中,外源性给予α1M被证明可以减轻由细胞外胎儿血红蛋白引起的肾脏和胎盘损伤,提示α1M可能作为子痫前期的一种潜在新疗法 。

5. 非急性期蛋白的优势: α1M不是急性期蛋白,在广泛的生理条件下稳定,且已开发出敏感的免疫分析方法,使其成为一个有前景的临床诊断标记物 。然而,其国际标准化仍需进一步完善 。

6. 与药物治疗的相互作用: 最近的研究也开始关注α1M与新型药物治疗的相互作用。例如,SGLT2抑制剂依帕格列净治疗后,尿液α1M水平增加 。这可能反映了药物对近端肾小管重吸收功能的影响,需要进一步研究以阐明其生理学意义和对肾脏保护机制的贡献 。

总的来说,临床对α1M的认知已从最初的发现和肾小管功能标志物,扩展到其在CKD进展、ESRD患者管理以及其他疾病中的诊断和预后价值,甚至潜在的治疗应用。随着研究的深入,α1M有望在个体化医疗和肾脏疾病管理中发挥更重要的作用。

三、ESRD患者中A1M的病理生理学

终末期肾病(ESRD)患者由于肾脏清除功能的严重丧失,体内会积累多种内源性物质,其中包括α1微球蛋白(A1M)。这种积累并非简单的潴留,而是伴随着复杂的病理生理学机制,对患者的健康产生深远影响。

3.1 A1M积累的机制

在正常生理状态下,A1M作为一种低分子量蛋白,可以通过肾小球滤过,并在近端肾小管被有效重吸收 。肝细胞是A1M的主要合成场所 。因此,血浆中A1M的浓度受到其生成、肾小球滤过和肾小管重吸收三者平衡的调节。

在ESRD患者中,A1M的积累主要源于以下机制:

  1. 肾小球滤过功能严重下降: ESRD的标志是肾小球滤过率(GFR)的极度降低。由于肾小球的滤过屏障功能几乎丧失,A1M从血液中滤过的量显著减少,导致其在血浆中的浓度升高 。
  2. 肾小管功能障碍: 即使少量A1M能够滤过,受损的近端肾小管也无法有效地重吸收A1M。慢性肾脏病(CKD)和ESRD常伴有广泛的肾小管损伤,进一步削弱了肾脏清除A1M的能力 。
  3. 肝功能异常: 尽管肝脏是A1M的主要合成器官,但在ESRD患者中,合并肝功能不全的情况也可能影响A1M的生成,但通常情况下,肾脏清除障碍是导致A1M积累的主要因素。

因此,A1M在ESRD患者血浆中的高浓度,是肾脏功能衰竭的直接后果,反映了肾脏清除中分子量溶质能力的严重不足。

3.2 A1M缺乏导致的级联病理学

虽然ESRD患者体内A1M呈现积累状态,但这种积累是相对于肾脏清除能力下降而言的,并非是“功能性过剩”。相反,在某些组织或功能区域,可能存在相对的A1M“缺乏”或其保护性功能受损,从而导致一系列病理学改变:

  1. 氧化应激和炎症加剧: A1M具有强大的抗氧化和组织清除功能,能够清除自由基和血红素,并抑制免疫细胞功能 。在ESRD患者体内,尿毒症毒素和炎症状态本身就导致了持续的氧化应激。如果体内A1M的保护性作用受到限制(例如,在局部组织浓度不足,或者其功能被大量尿毒症毒素耗竭),则可能加剧氧化应激和炎症反应,从而损害血管内皮、心血管系统等。
  2. 免疫功能紊乱: A1M具有免疫抑制特性,可以干扰淋巴细胞对某些抗原的反应,并具有抗炎作用 。在ESRD患者中,免疫功能紊乱是常见的并发症,包括免疫缺陷和慢性炎症。A1M的相对功能不足可能加剧这种免疫失衡,使患者更容易发生感染和非感染性炎症性疾病。
  3. 血管钙化和心血管疾病: 持续的氧化应激和炎症是ESRD患者血管钙化和心血管疾病高发的重要驱动因素。A1M的抗氧化和抗炎作用的“相对缺乏”可能无法有效对抗这些病理过程,从而加速心血管并发症的发生发展。
  4. 内质网应激和细胞损伤: 最近研究提示A1M可能参与调节内质网活动和红细胞稳态 。因此,A1M功能的失衡可能导致内质网应激,进而影响细胞功能和生存,特别是在对氧化应激敏感的细胞中。

因此,A1M在ESRD患者体内的积累虽然是普遍现象,但其“相对缺乏”或功能受损,无法有效发挥其保护性作用,可能导致氧化应激、炎症反应和免疫功能紊乱的加剧,从而推动ESRD相关并发症的进展。

3.3 A1M与肌肉消耗

肌肉消耗,即恶病质,是ESRD患者常见的并发症,严重影响患者的生活质量和预后。虽然目前直接证据 linking A1M with muscle wasting is not as robust as its role in oxidative stress or inflammation, an indirect link can be hypothesized through its broader involvement in systemic inflammation and oxidative stress:

  1. 炎症驱动的肌肉消耗: ESRD患者普遍存在慢性炎症状态,表现为IL-6和TNF-α等炎症细胞因子水平升高 。这些炎症介质是驱动肌肉蛋白降解、抑制肌肉合成的关键因素,从而导致肌肉消耗 。A1M具有抗炎作用,其功能的相对不足可能导致炎症反应的失控,进而加剧肌肉消耗。
  2. 氧化应激与肌肉消耗: 氧化应激被认为是ESRD患者肌肉消耗的另一个重要病理机制。活性氧(ROS)的增加可以损害肌肉细胞的结构和功能,激活蛋白水解途径 。作为一种抗氧化蛋白,A1M的保护作用减弱可能无法有效缓解氧化应激,从而间接促进肌肉消耗。
  3. 食欲不振和营养不良: 慢性炎症和尿毒症毒素的积累会导致ESRD患者食欲不振、恶心呕吐,进而导致能量和蛋白质摄入不足,加速肌肉消耗。虽然A1M本身不直接影响食欲,但其在全身性炎症和毒素积累中的作用可能间接影响患者的营养状态。

虽然目前缺乏直接证据表明A1M的积累或缺乏直接导致肌肉消耗,但鉴于A1M在调节炎症和氧化应激中的核心作用,其在ESRD患者体内的病理生理学变化很可能通过这些途径间接影响肌肉代谢,从而导致或加剧肌肉消耗。

综上所述,A1M在ESRD患者体内的积累是肾功能衰竭的直接体现。这种积累同时伴随着A1M保护性功能的相对不足,可能通过加剧氧化应激和炎症反应,间接促进ESRD相关的并发症,包括肌肉消耗。因此,有效清除A1M及其相关毒素对于改善ESRD患者的整体预后具有重要意义。

四、现行清除手段及其局限性

目前,对于终末期肾病(ESRD)患者体内尿毒症毒素的清除主要依赖于各种血液净化疗法。α1微球蛋白(A1M)作为一种中分子量毒素,其清除效果是评估这些疗法有效性的重要指标之一 。然而,现行清除手段在A1M清除方面仍存在一定的局限性。

1. 血液透析(Hemodialysis, HD)

  • 常规高通量透析: 常规高通量透析膜能够清除一部分中分子量溶质,包括A1M。然而,其清除效率受膜孔径、膜材料以及透析时间等因素影响 。研究显示,透析膜对蛋白的通透性在一次治疗过程中会下降 。虽然高通量透析相对于低通量透析能提供更好的中分子量清除,但对于像A1M这类分子量稍大的中分子量蛋白,其清除率仍可能不尽理想 。
  • 超高通量透析: 随着透析膜技术的发展,超高通量膜的孔径更大,理论上可以更有效地清除大分子毒素,如A1M 。有研究报道,超高通量膜和S型透析器膜(具有高生物相容性、通过吸附改善溶质清除并具有抗炎抗氧化特性)与更好的患者预后相关 。然而,超高通量透析也面临平衡溶质清除效率和白蛋白丢失的挑战,过高的膜通透性可能导致白蛋白等有益蛋白的过度丢失,这需要谨慎权衡 。

2. 血液透析滤过(Hemodiafiltration, HDF)

  • HDF结合了弥散和对流两种溶质清除机制,被认为在清除中分子量毒素方面优于传统的血液透析 。通过对流作用,HDF可以更有效地清除较大分子量的溶质。
  • 预稀释血液透析滤过: 预稀释血液透析滤过是一种增加中分子量蛋白清除而不造成大量白蛋白泄漏的有效方法 。然而,要实现显著增加的中分子量清除(如A1M还原率超过35%),需要较大的对流体积,这在实际操作中可能受限于设备和补液量的限制 。
  • 局限性: 尽管HDF在清除中分子量方面表现优异,但一项比较扩大血液透析(EHD)与HDF的研究显示,EHD在清除A1M、YKL-40、补体因子D、肌红蛋白和κ-FLC方面表现出显著更高的清除率,而β2M的清除率与HDF非劣效 。这提示HDF在某些特定中分子量毒素的清除方面,可能不如一些新型透析技术。

3. 高截留(High-Cutoff, HCO)和中截留(Medium-Cutoff, MCO)膜

  • HCO和MCO膜设计用于清除更大的低分子量蛋白(LMWP)和某些蛋白质结合的尿毒症毒素(PBUTs) 。这些膜在清除A1M等中分子量毒素方面具有潜力。
  • 局限性: 使用HCO或MCO膜进行对流治疗时,必须小心避免在透析过程中出现大量的白蛋白泄漏 。虽然它们能提高中分子量清除,但白蛋白泄漏的风险限制了其广泛应用和对流体积的增加 。

4. 蛋白质吸附膜

  • 蛋白质吸附膜,如聚甲基丙烯酸甲酯(PMMA)膜,能够通过吸附机制清除β2微球蛋白(β2M)等蛋白质 。
  • 血液灌流中的应用: 直接血液灌流结合PMMA滤芯已被证明可以有效清除β2M,并同时提高α1M和MMP-3的清除率 。PMMA纤维,特别是优化后的十字形纳米多孔PMMA纤维,对β2M以及包括A1M在内的中分子量蛋白(如IL-6, TNF-α)表现出高效且选择性的吸附能力,同时限制白蛋白的吸收,具有良好的血流动力学特性 。
  • 局限性: 尽管吸附技术在清除特定蛋白质方面表现出色,但仍需要进一步研究以评估其在管理透析相关淀粉样变和其他并发症方面的长期疗效 。此外,吸附饱和度、再生问题以及对其他有益蛋白的非特异性吸附,仍是其应用中需要考虑的因素。

总而言之,虽然现行的血液净化手段在一定程度上能够清除A1M,但其清除效率仍存在局限性,特别是在平衡中分子量毒素清除与白蛋白等有益蛋白丢失之间。这促使研究人员探索更有效、更具选择性的清除技术,以期更好地管理ESRD患者体内的A1M积累。

五、A1M清除的临床必要性与目标

α1微球蛋白(A1M)的清除在终末期肾病(ESRD)患者的临床管理中具有重要的必要性和明确的目标。鉴于A1M在ESRD患者中的病理生理学作用,有效的清除可以带来多方面的临床益处。

5.1 临床必要性

  1. 作为中分子量尿毒症毒素的清除: A1M是一种中分子量蛋白,其在ESRD患者体内的积累被认为是导致多种透析相关并发症的“中分子量毒素”之一 。持续积累的中分子量毒素与慢性透析患者的死亡率和发病率增加密切相关 。因此,积极清除A1M对于减轻尿毒症毒性、改善患者预后至关重要。
  2. 缓解氧化应激和炎症反应: A1M具有强大的抗氧化和抗炎特性 。在ESRD患者中,氧化应激和慢性炎症是普遍存在的病理生理过程,是心血管疾病、恶病质和免疫功能障碍等并发症的主要驱动因素。尽管ESRD患者体内A1M总量积累,但其保护性功能的相对不足可能加剧这些有害过程。有效清除A1M以及其他能促进氧化应激和炎症的毒素,有助于减轻全身性炎症负担,改善患者的内环境。
  3. 改善透析相关症状: 中分子量毒素的积累与多种透析相关症状有关,例如睡眠障碍、皮肤瘙痒和透析性低血压等 。这些症状不仅影响患者的生活质量,还被认为是死亡率的良好替代指标 。研究表明,β2微球蛋白(B2M)还原率大于80%和A1M还原率大于35%对改善严重的透析相关症状是有益的 。因此,清除A1M有助于直接改善这些困扰患者的症状。
  4. 可能减轻肌肉消耗: 慢性炎症和氧化应激是导致ESRD患者肌肉消耗(恶病质)的重要因素。通过清除A1M及其他炎症介质,可以间接减轻慢性炎症和氧化应激,从而可能缓解肌肉消耗的进展,改善患者的营养状态和体力功能 。
  5. 为新型治疗策略提供依据: 随着对A1M病理生理学作用认识的加深,其清除已成为血液净化技术优化的重要方向。研究清除A1M的有效手段不仅能改善现有治疗,也可能为开发针对ESRD并发症的创新疗法提供新思路。

5.2 临床目标

基于上述临床必要性,A1M清除的临床目标可以概括为:

  1. 达到并维持适宜的A1M血浆水平: 理想的治疗目标是,通过血液净化手段,使ESRD患者的A1M血浆浓度尽可能接近正常生理水平,或者至少达到能够显著减轻尿毒症毒性和改善临床症状的水平。
  2. 实现高效且选择性的清除: 清除A1M应尽可能高效,同时避免或最小化对白蛋白等有益蛋白质的丢失 。这是一个关键挑战,因为许多清除中分子量毒素的方法也可能导致白蛋白的泄漏 。因此,理想的清除策略应具有高度的选择性。
  3. 改善临床结局和生活质量: 最终目标是,通过有效清除A1M,降低ESRD患者的死亡率和发病率,并显著改善其生活质量,包括减轻透析相关症状、改善营养状态和提高功能独立性 。
  4. 作为血液净化效果的评估指标: A1M的清除率应作为评估血液净化治疗(尤其是针对中分子量毒素的清除)效果的重要参数,指导临床医生优化透析处方和选择合适的透析膜或吸附剂 。
  5. 与并发症管理相结合: A1M的清除应与其他并发症(如心血管疾病、炎症、肌肉消耗)的管理策略相结合,形成多维度的治疗方案,以期达到最佳的综合治疗效果。

综上所述,A1M清除在ESRD患者的临床管理中具有不容忽视的必要性。通过设定明确的清除目标,并不断探索和优化清除手段,有望显著改善ESRD患者的长期预后和生活质量。

六、血液灌流在A1M清除中的应用前景

血液灌流(Hemoperfusion, HP)是一种重要的血液净化技术,通过直接让血液流过吸附剂,从而清除血液中的毒素。鉴于α1微球蛋白(A1M)作为中分子量尿毒症毒素的特性,血液灌流在A1M清除中展现出广阔的应用前景,尤其是在现有清除手段局限性日益凸显的背景下。

6.1 血液灌流的优势与机制

  1. 高效吸附清除: 血液灌流的核心在于其吸附剂对毒素的直接吸附作用。与主要依赖弥散和对流的透析滤过不同,吸附可以更有效地清除某些大分子和蛋白质结合的毒素 。对于像A1M这类分子量相对较大(26 kDa)的蛋白质,吸附机制可能比单纯的膜滤过更具优势 。
  2. 针对中分子量毒素的特异性: 许多新型吸附剂的开发都致力于提高对中分子量尿毒症毒素的吸附特异性。例如,聚甲基丙烯酸甲酯(PMMA)膜已被证实具有强大的吸附能力,不仅对β2微球蛋白(β2M)有效,对A1M和基质金属蛋白酶-3(MMP-3)的清除也表现出良好效果 。
  3. 结构优化增强吸附性能: 吸附材料的结构设计对其性能至关重要。研究表明,具有优化孔径(如12-15 nm)和横截面(如十字形)的纳米多孔PMMA纤维,能够最大化β2M的吸附,并显著提高A1M等中分子量蛋白的清除率 。这种精细的结构设计使得吸附剂能够更好地捕获目标分子,同时限制白蛋白等有益蛋白的非特异性结合,确保了清除的选择性 。
  4. 改善血流动力学: 新型吸附纤维的设计不仅考虑了吸附性能,还优化了血流动力学特性。例如,纤维填充的柱体与珠状填充的柱体相比,具有更低的压力损失,这对于长期血液灌流治疗的安全性至关重要 。
  5. 协同作用: 血液灌流通常可以作为标准透析的辅助疗法。在透析过程中联用血液灌流,可以实现对多种尿毒症毒素的互补清除,从而可能达到更全面的血液净化效果 。

6.2 在A1M清除中的具体应用前景

  1. 直接清除积累的A1M: 鉴于ESRD患者体内A1M的持续高水平积累,血液灌流可以通过吸附直接有效地清除这些分子,降低血浆A1M浓度,从而减轻尿毒症毒性 。
  2. 改善透析相关淀粉样变(DRA)及其他并发症: DRA是长期透析患者的严重并发症,主要由β2M积累引起 。由于β2M与A1M具有相似的分子特性和清除机制,PMMA血液灌流在清除β2M的同时,也显著清除了A1M 。这提示血液灌流可能通过清除多种中分子量毒素,协同改善DRA及其他与中分子量毒素积累相关的并发症,如慢性炎症、氧化应激等。
  3. 减轻氧化应激和炎症: A1M具有抗氧化和抗炎特性。血液灌流能够清除A1M以及其他炎症介质(如IL-6、TNF-α),可能有助于打破ESRD患者的慢性炎症和氧化应激循环,从而保护心血管系统,改善免疫功能,并可能缓解肌肉消耗等并发症 。
  4. 监测和评估治疗效果: A1M清除率可以作为血液灌流治疗效果的重要评估指标 。通过定期监测A1M血浆水平和清除率,可以指导临床医生调整血液灌流方案,优化治疗效果。
  5. 个体化治疗: 随着吸附剂材料和结构的不断进步,未来有望开发出针对不同尿毒症毒素谱的个性化血液灌流方案。针对A1M及其他特定中分子量毒素,可以设计更具选择性和高效性的吸附剂,以实现更精准的个体化血液净化治疗。

6.3 挑战与未来方向

尽管血液灌流在A1M清除中前景广阔,但仍面临一些挑战:

  1. 长期疗效和安全性: 需要进一步的大规模临床研究来评估血液灌流在清除A1M方面的长期疗效和安全性,特别是对患者预后、生活质量和并发症发生率的影响 。
  2. 吸附剂的饱和与再生: 吸附剂存在饱和问题,其吸附能力会随时间下降。开发可再生或具有更长使用寿命的吸附剂,以及优化吸附流程,是未来研究的重要方向。
  3. 生物相容性: 任何与血液直接接触的材料都需要良好的生物相容性,以避免血栓形成、溶血和免疫反应等不良事件。
  4. 成本效益: 新型血液灌流技术的成本效益分析对于其临床普及至关重要。

总的来说,血液灌流,特别是使用优化后的PMMA吸附剂,在高效、选择性清除A1M及其他中分子量尿毒症毒素方面具有显著潜力。它有望成为改善ESRD患者并发症、提高生存率和生活质量的重要辅助或替代疗法。未来的研究应聚焦于长期临床验证、吸附剂优化以及成本效益评估,以充分发挥其在血液净化领域的价值。

References

1alpha 1-Microglobulin.PubMed

B Berggård, B Ekström, B Akerström
A new low-molecular weight plasma protein was discovered and isolated from human urine by Ingemar Beggård. He named it alpha 1-microglobulin. The protein has a molecular weight of 26,000, contains about 20% carbohydrate, is electrophoretically heterogenous, carries a brown-coloured, unidentified substance, and is present in serum in free, as well as in high molecular weight complexes. alpha 1-Microglobulin seems to interfere with the in vitro response of lymphocytes to some antigens. The site of synthesis of alpha 1-microglobulin is unclear.

2Proteomic studies in endemic nephropathy.PubMed

Vladisav Stefanović, Ivana Pešić, Rade Cukuranović, et al.
Endemic nephropathy (EN) is a chronic tubulointerstitial nephropathy with an early insidious and slow development into terminal renal failure. Proteomics is the systematic study of a proteome, which is the total protein content of a cell, organism or body fluids. Application of proteomic technologies in nephrology has enabled more detailed analyses of protein functions and examined their importance in various physiological and pathological states. Biomarkers with high specificity and sensitivity to early diagnosis are needed for a better understanding of the mechanisms of EN development and its consequences. Urine beta2-microglobulin (B2M) was mainly used as a tubular marker of EN but recently alpha1-microglobulin (AMBP) was proposed for the diagnosis of EN. We studied the urine proteins of 360 patients with EN, diabetic nephropathy (DN) and acute kidney injury (AKI) and the healthy population using proteomic tools. Protein maps from the urine of patients with EN showed significant differences in comparison to the healthy subjects and patients with DN and AKI. Our study highlights six proteins in urine that were differentially excreted in the urine of EN patients compared with the other groups and have potential to be markers for EN prediction. In one of our studies, using routine biomarkers, we investigated the potential of urine B2M, AMBP, albumin and total protein as diagnostic markers for EN, in comparison to glomerulonephritis, nephrosclerosis and a healthy state. Modern proteomic technologies are still robust investigation tools, but can access a vast amount of information from one set of experiments in comparison to a classic diagnostic approach.

3Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) biomarker.PubMed

Sri S Adiyanti, Tonny Loho
The kidney has a remarkable capacity to withstand insults for an extended period of time. The sensitivities of individual renal cells to injury vary depending on their type, position in the nephron, local vascularization, and the nature of injury. The resulting kidney injury is a product of the interplay between cell dysfunction, cell death, proliferation, inflammation, and recovery. The Acute Kidney Injury Network (AKIN) defined Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) as "functional and structural disorder or signs of renal damage including any defect from blood and urine test, or tissue imaging that is less than 3 months". RIFLE (Risk, Injury, Failure, Loss, End-Stage Kidney Disease) criteria is the most frequently used system. Ideal biomarker for AKI should be affordable, quick and measurable, precise and accurate, with prognostic ability to define severity of renal dysfunction, specific for renal, increase in the early stage dysfunction, with high sensitivity and specificity. Efforts to detect AKI in the earlier stage has resulted in some promising biomarkers such as KIM-1, NGAL, IL-18, Clusterin, etc. Cystatin C is a biomarker for glomerular filtration function, while 2-microglobulin, 1-microglobulin, NAG, RBP, IL-18, NGAL, Netrin-1, KIM-1, Clusterin, Sodium Hydrogen Exchanger Isoform and Fetuin A are biomarkers for tubular reabsorption function.

4Direct Hemoperfusion with Polymethylmethacrylate for Hemodialysis Patients with Dialysis-Related Amyloidosis.PubMed

Shoko Yamazaki, Daisuke Miyauchi, Atsushi Hashimoto, et al.
INTRODUCTION: Dialysis-related amyloidosis (DRA) is a serious complication in patients undergoing long-term dialysis that leads to conditions such as carpal tunnel syndrome and destructive spondyloarthropathy. Improved removal of the precursor protein β-microglobulin (β-m) is considered an effective treatment strategy for DRA. Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) membranes have the capacity to adsorb β-m in dialysis filters, suggesting that direct hemoperfusion with PMMA in addition to standard dialysis may enhance β-m removal. METHODS: This prospective cohort study included 10 patients undergoing hemodialysis, who were diagnosed with DRA. The participants were treated with dialysis filter alone during visit 1, both standard dialysis filter and PMMA cartridges (FT-75, volume 75 cm3) during visits 2-4, and FT-145 PMMA cartridges (volume 145 cm3) during visits 5-7. The removal rates and clearances of β-m were quantified. We also assessed the removal of α-microglobulin (α-m), matrix metalloproteinase-3 (MMP-3), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-a (TNF-α), which may be associated with DRA symptoms. RESULTS: PMMA cartridge had increased β-m removal rates compared to dialysis filter alone for treatment duration of 240 min. Similarly, the removal rates of α-m and MMP-3 were higher with PMMA cartridges than with dialysis filter alone. β-m, α-m, and MMP-3 clearance improved with the addition of PMMA cartridges, depending on the cartridge size. The removal rates of IL-6 and TNF-α were higher with PMMA cartridges than with dialysis filter alone at 30 min, but not at 240 min. CONCLUSION: Direct hemoperfusion with PMMA is an effective method for removing β-m in hemodialysis patients with DRA. Beneficial effects were also observed for the removal of α-m and MMP-3. Further research is required to evaluate the long-term efficacy of this approach in managing DRA.

5Current approaches to middle molecule removal: room for innovation.PubMed

Ikuto Masakane, Kenji Sakurai
Aggressive removal of middle molecules or larger low-molecular-weight proteins (LMWPs) has been a growing concern following studies on their harmful effects on the mortality and morbidity of chronic dialysis patients. To remove larger LMWPs and some protein-bound uremic toxins (PBUTs), high- and medium-cutoff (HCOs and MCOs, respectively) membranes, convective therapy and protein adsorptive membranes are available. When we use HCO or MCO membranes for convective therapy, we have to take care to avoid massive albumin leakage during a dialysis session. Convection volume is an important element to increase middle molecule removal; however, a larger convection volume has a risk of larger leakage of albumin. Predilution hemodiafiltration is a useful measurement to increase larger LMWPs without massive albumin leakage. β2-microglobulin (B2M), α1-microglobulin (A1M) and albumin leakage during a dialysis session are useful parameters for assessing middle-molecule removal. Reduction ratios of B2M >80% and of A1M >35% are favorable to improve severe dialysis-related symptoms. The efficacy of middle molecule removal should be evaluated in comparison with clinical outcomes, mortality, morbidity and the improvement of dialysis-related symptoms. Recently some dialysis-related symptoms such as sleep disturbance, skin itchiness and dialysis hypotension have been recognized as good surrogate makers for mortality. Further studies to evaluate the relationship between middle molecule or PBUTs removal and the improvement of patient symptoms should be performed in well-designed randomized controlled trials.

6alpha(1)-Microglobulin: a yellow-brown lipocalin.PubMed

B Akerström, L Lögdberg, T Berggård, et al.
alpha(1)-Microglobulin, also called protein HC, is a lipocalin with immunosuppressive properties. The protein has been found in a number of vertebrate species including frogs and fish. This review summarizes the present knowledge of its structure, biosynthesis, tissue distribution and immunoregulatory properties. alpha(1)-Microglobulin has a yellow-brown color and is size and charge heterogeneous. This is caused by an array of small chromophore prosthetic groups, attached to amino acid residues at the entrance of the lipocalin pocket. A gene in the lipocalin cluster encodes alpha(1)-microglobulin together with a Kunitz-type proteinase inhibitor, bikunin. The gene is translated into the alpha(1)-microglobulin-bikunin precursor, which is subsequently cleaved and the two proteins secreted to the blood separately. alpha(1)-Microglobulin is found in blood and in connective tissue in most organs. It is most abundant at interfaces between the cells of the body and the environment, such as in lungs, intestine, kidneys and placenta. alpha(1)-Microglobulin inhibits immunological functions of white blood cells in vitro, and its distribution is consistent with an anti-inflammatory and protective role in vivo.

7A1M Ameliorates Preeclampsia-Like Symptoms in Placenta and Kidney Induced by Cell-Free Fetal Hemoglobin in Rabbit.PubMed

Åsa Nääv, Lena Erlandsson, Josefin Axelsson, et al.
Preeclampsia is one of the most serious pregnancy-related diseases and clinically manifests as hypertension and proteinuria after 20 gestational weeks. The worldwide prevalence is 3-8% of pregnancies, making it the most common cause of maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. Preeclampsia lacks an effective therapy, and the only "cure" is delivery. We have previously shown that increased synthesis and accumulation of cell-free fetal hemoglobin (HbF) in the placenta is important in the pathophysiology of preeclampsia. Extracellular hemoglobin (Hb) and its metabolites induce oxidative stress, which may lead to acute renal failure and vascular dysfunction seen in preeclampsia. The human endogenous protein, α1-microglobulin (A1M), removes cell-free heme-groups and induces natural tissue repair mechanisms. Exogenously administered A1M has been shown to alleviate the effects of Hb-induced oxidative stress in rat kidneys. Here we attempted to establish an animal model mimicking the human symptoms at stage two of preeclampsia by administering species-specific cell-free HbF starting mid-gestation until term, and evaluated the therapeutic effect of A1M on the induced symptoms. Female pregnant rabbits received HbF infusions i.v. with or without A1M every second day from gestational day 20. The HbF-infused animals developed proteinuria and a significantly increased glomerular sieving coefficient in kidney that was ameliorated by co-administration of A1M. Transmission electron microscopy analysis of kidney and placenta showed both intracellular and extracellular tissue damages after HbF-treatment, while A1M co-administration resulted in a significant reduction of the structural and cellular changes. Neither of the HbF-treated animals displayed any changes in blood pressure during pregnancy. In conclusion, infusion of cell-free HbF in the pregnant rabbits induced tissue damage and organ failure similar to those seen in preeclampsia, and was restored by co-administration of A1M. This study provides preclinical evidence supporting further examination of A1M as a potential new therapy for preeclampsia.

8Alpha-1-microglobulin: Prognostic value in chronic kidney disease.PubMed

Nicolás R Robles, Juan Lopez Gomez, Guadalupe Garcia Pino, et al.
OBJECTIVES: α1-microglobulin (α1M) is a tubular protein used for detecting acute lesions of proximal tubules. This study evaluated the use of urine α1M excretion as a marker of chronic kidney disease (CKD) progression and life survival. DESIGN AND METHODS: In all 163 patients were recruited (90 men), mean age 61.6±16.4 years. Urinary α1M was evaluated using an immunonephelometric assay. Patients were divided into 2 groups according to urinary α1M excretion (cut-off value: 32.85mg/24h). RESULTS: End stage renal disease-free survival was 94.2% at 5 years for patients with lower α1M. For patients in the highest percentile, renal function survival was 72.7% (P=.011). Life survival was 94.4% for patients with α1M in the lower percentiles. For patients in the upper percentile, live survival was 54.2% (P=.001). The Cox regression analysis showed an independent association of CKD progression with high α1M excretion (P=.043). CONCLUSIONS: α1M urinary excretion was associated with faster CKD progression and higher mortality. Further studies are needed to determine whether the association between α1M urinary excretion and excess mortality risk represents a causal link.

9Cross-shaped nanoporous poly(methyl methacrylate) fibers for selective adsorption of β-microglobulin and other middle-molecular-weight proteins.PubMed

Hiroaki Fujieda, Tomoaki Osuka, Masaru Nakada, et al.
BACKGROUND: Dialysis-related amyloidosis (DRA) is a serious complication in chronic kidney disease patients on long-term dialysis, caused by β-microglobulin (β-MG) accumulation, and remains challenging owing to the growing dialysis population and extended treatment duration. OBJECTIVES: To develop and evaluate stereocomplex poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) adsorbent fibers with optimized cross-sectional and nanoporous structures for efficient, selective β-MG removal. METHODS: Structured PMMA fibers were fabricated via dry-wet spinning. The adsorption performance of optimized fibers was evaluated with serum containing β-MG and other solutes, using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), three-dimensional transmission electron microscopy (3D-TEM), and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS). Pressure loss simulations compared fiber- and bead-packed columns. RESULTS: Fibers with 12-15 nm pores exhibited maximal β-MG adsorption. Cross-shaped fibers exhibited the highest blood-contact surface area and adsorption capacity. A thin surface-dense layer (<0.1 μm) improved β-MG diffusion while limiting albumin uptake. TOF-SIMS confirmed uniform β-MG penetration, with albumin confined near the fiber surface. Adsorption exceeded 50% for mid-weight proteins (~52 kDa), including IL-6, α-microglobulin (α-MG), and TNF-α. Pressure loss simulations showed that fiber-packed columns had lower resistance than bead-packed columns. CONCLUSIONS: Optimized cross-shaped PMMA fibers enable efficient, selective β-MG removal and favorable flow dynamics for hemoperfusion therapies targeting mid-weight uremic toxins.

10Comparison of middle molecule removal with expanded hemodialysis versus haemodiafiltration among Chinese hemodialysis patients.PubMed

Liangying Gan, Leyi Gu, Yongchun Ge, et al.
BACKGROUND: This study aimed to compare uremic toxin removal with expanded hemodialysis against post-dilution online haemodiafiltration therapy in Chinese patients with chronic kidney failure in a single treatment. METHODS: This randomized, controlled, open-label, parallel, multicenter trial enrolled prevalent patients on hemodialysis. The study endpoints were to establish the non-inferiority of expanded hemodialysis versus haemodiafiltration in removing beta-2-microglobulin (β2M) and lambda-free light chains (λFLC) and to evaluate the reduction ratios of urea, alpha-1-microglobulin (α1M), myoglobin, complement factor D, kappa-free light chains (κFLC) and Chitinase-3-like protein 1 (YKL-40) during a mid-week dialysis session. The 95% confidence intervals of the difference in λFLC and β2M reduction ratios with expanded hemodialysis were compared against pre-defined non-inferiority margins (-3.783 and -7.848, respectively). Non-inferior reduction ratios were tested for superiority using hierarchical testing. RESULTS: Overall, 274 adult patients were randomized to expanded hemodialysis ( = 138) or haemodiafiltration ( = 136). No differences in demographics, baseline characteristics, and treatment parameters were observed between the arms. The reduction ratio of λFLC with expanded hemodialysis was superior to haemodiafiltration; reduction ratio difference of 17.0% [95% confidence interval: 14.8%, 19.2%]. The reduction ratio of β2M with expanded hemodialysis was non-inferior to haemodiafiltration; reduction ratio difference of -1.2% [95% confidence interval: -2.5%, 0.2%]. Expanded hemodialysis showed significantly higher removal of α1M, YKL-40, complement factor D, myoglobin, and κFLC than haemodiafiltration therapy. There were no significant differences in Kt/V, urea reduction ratio, and the rate of complications between the arms. CONCLUSION: Our study demonstrates the effectiveness of expanded hemodialysis therapy in removing multiple middle molecules compared to haemodiafiltration therapy, with no observed differences in the overall safety of Chinese patients.

11Structure, Functions, and Implications of Selected Lipocalins in Human Disease.PubMed

Preethi Chandrasekaran, Sabine Weiskirchen, Ralf Weiskirchen
The lipocalin proteins are a large family of small extracellular proteins that demonstrate significant heterogeneity in sequence similarity and have highly conserved crystal structures. They have a variety of functions, including acting as carrier proteins, transporting retinol, participating in olfaction, and synthesizing prostaglandins. Importantly, they also play a critical role in human diseases, including cancer. Additionally, they are involved in regulating cellular homeostasis and immune response and dispensing various compounds. This comprehensive review provides information on the lipocalin family, including their structure, functions, and implications in various diseases. It focuses on selective important human lipocalin proteins, such as lipocalin 2 (LCN2), retinol binding protein 4 (RBP4), prostaglandin D2 synthase (PTGDS), and α-microglobulin (A1M).

12Alpha 1-microglobulin (protein HC): features of a promising indicator of proximal tubular dysfunction.PubMed

M H Weber, R Verwiebe
alpha 1-Microglobulin (protein HC) is a stable urinary indicator protein which reflects acute and chronic dysfunctions of the proximal renal tubule. High urinary concentrations were found to be indicative of tubular drug toxicity, interstitial nephritis or chronic renal failure. The protein is synthesized by liver cells and readily associates with serum immunoglobulin A. Only the free form is filtered through the glomerulus and is reabsorbed by proximal tubular cells. The exact physiological function of this member of the new superfamily of lipocalins is still unknown, but there are indications that alpha 1-microglobulin (protein HC) may serve as an excretion vehicle for fluorescent, charge-heterogeneous substances of unknown nature. Additionally, it seems to be associated with the humoral and cellular immune response.

13Plasma and Urine Biomarkers of CKD: A Review of Findings in the CKiD Study.PubMed

Ibrahim Sandokji, Jason H Greenberg
Serum creatinine and level of proteinuria, as biomarkers of chronic kidney disease (CKD) progression, inadequately explain the variability of glomerular filtration rate decline, and are late markers of glomerular filtration rate decline. Recent studies have identified plasma and urine biomarkers at higher levels in children with CKD and also associate independently with CKD progression, even after adjustment for serum creatinine and proteinuria. These novel biomarkers represent diverse biologic pathways of tubular injury, tubular dysfunction, inflammation, and tubular health, and can be used as a liquid biopsy to better characterize CKD in children. In this review, we highlight the biomarker findings from the Chronic Kidney Disease in Children cohort, a large longitudinal study of children with CKD, and compare results with those from other pediatric CKD cohorts. The biomarkers in focus in this review include plasma kidney injury molecule-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, fibroblast growth factor-23, tumor necrosis factor receptor-1, tumor necrosis factor receptor-2, soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor, and chitinase-3-like protein 1, as well as urine epidermal growth factor, α-1 microglobulin, kidney injury molecule-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, and chitinase-3-like protein 1. Blood and urine biomarkers improve our ability to prognosticate CKD progression and may improve our understanding of CKD pathophysiology. Further research is required to establish how these biomarkers can be used in the clinical setting to improve the clinical management of CKD.

14Super high-flux membrane dialyzers and mortality in patients undergoing hemodialysis.PubMed

Hiroyuki Takashima, Takashi Maruyama, Masanori Abe
PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Synthetic high-flux membranes are currently the most widely used dialyzers worldwide. In Japan, super high-flux membranes have been in widespread use for some time, but in recent years, S-type dialyzer membranes have also been reported to improve prognosis. Today, super high-flux membranes with a larger pore size make it possible to remove large-molecule toxins, such as α 1 -microglobulin. This review focuses on the prognostic benefit of super high-flux and S-type dialyzer membranes. RECENT FINDINGS: Until 2012, dialyzers in Japan were classified based on their β2-microglobulin (β2MG) clearance rate as type I (<10 ml/min), type II (≥10-30 ml/min), type III (≥30-50 ml/min), type IV (≥50-70), or type V (≥70 ml/min). It has been reported that type IV and V dialyzers are associated with a good prognosis. Dialyzers are now classified as type I-a, I-b, II-a, or II-b, based on a combination of β2MG clearance and the sieving coefficient for albumin. Moreover, the S-type dialyzer has been defined as having high biocompatibility, improving solute removal by adsorption, and having anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. SUMMARY: Type IV and V dialyzers with a β2MG clearance rate of ≥50 ml/min are considered to improve the prognosis of patients on dialysis. According to the present classification, super high-flux membranes with a β2MG clearance rate of ≥70 ml/min and S-type membranes contribute to a more favorable prognosis.

15Structure, Functions, and Physiological Roles of the Lipocalin α-Microglobulin (A1M).PubMed

Jesper Bergwik, Amanda Kristiansson, Maria Allhorn, et al.
α-microglobulin (A1M) is found in all vertebrates including humans. A1M was, together with retinol-binding protein and β-lactoglobulin, one of the three original lipocalins when the family first was proposed in 1985. A1M is described as an antioxidant and tissue cleaning protein with reductase, heme- and radical-binding activities. These biochemical properties are driven by a strongly electronegative surface-exposed thiol group, C34, on loop 1 of the open end of the lipocalin barrel. A1M has been shown to have protective effects and in cell-, organ-, and animal models of oxidative stress-related medical conditions. The gene coding for A1M is unique among lipocalins since it is flanked downstream by four exons coding for another non-lipocalin protein, bikunin, and is consequently named α-microglobulin-bikunin precursor gene (). The precursor is cleaved in the Golgi, and A1M and bikunin are secreted from the cell separately. Recent publications have suggested novel physiological roles of A1M in regulation of endoplasmic reticulum activities and erythrocyte homeostasis. This review summarizes the present knowledge of the structure and functions of the lipocalin A1M and presents a current model of its biological role(s).

16Effects of Empagliflozin on Urine Biomarkers in EMPA-KIDNEY.PubMed

Greco B Malijan, Rebecca J Sardell, Natalie Staplin, et al.
RATIONALE & OBJECTIVE: Sodium/glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors substantially slow progression of chronic kidney disease and reduce the risk of acute kidney injury, but their effects on kidney physiology are incompletely understood. This study assessed the effects of empagliflozin on a comprehensive set of urinary tubular and glomerular biomarkers. STUDY DESIGN: Randomized controlled trial. SETTING & PARTICIPANTS: 2,752 participants from EMPA-KIDNEY. EXPOSURE: Empagliflozin, 10 mg daily, versus placebo. OUTCOME: Urine biomarkers indexed to urinary creatinine and averaged across on-study time points. Urine biomarkers included markers of glomerular disease (albumin, total protein); proximal tubular reabsorption (α-microglobulin [A1M]); functional tubular reserve (epidermal growth factor [EGF], uromodulin [UMOD]); tubular injury/inflammation (kidney injury molecule-1 [KIM-1], neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin [NGAL]); and tubular ischemia/stress (dickkopf-3 [DKK-3], monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 [MCP-1]). ANALYTICAL APPROACH: Mixed model repeated measures. RESULTS: Allocation to empagliflozin reduced urinary albumin by 19% (95% CI, -24% to -14%), total protein by 7% (-11% to -2%), and UMOD by 63% (-65% to -61%). It increased A1M by 29% (25%-34%), DKK-3 by 22% (16%-29%), and NGAL by 7% (0-13%). Overall, there were no significant effects on EGF (1% [-1% to 4%]), KIM-1 (2% [-1% to 6%]), and MCP-1 (0 [-4% to 3%]). The magnitude of effects on biomarker levels was generally similar at 2 and 18 months of follow-up. The large reductions in UMOD were evident regardless of baseline diabetes status, primary cause of kidney disease, and level of estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and/or albuminuria. Exploratory mediation analyses suggest that reductions in albuminuria and UMOD accounted for 32% (15% to 52%) of the beneficial effect of empagliflozin on chronic eGFR slope. LIMITATIONS: The mediation analyses cannot be used to formally confirm that UMOD reduction is a causal mediator for the kidney benefits of SGLT2 inhibitors. CONCLUSIONS: SGLT2 inhibition imparts a large and sustained reduction in urinary UMOD and also increases some biomarkers partially reabsorbed by proximal tubules without consistently affecting markers of tubular injury. These effects deserve further detailed experimental exploration, particularly the effect on thick ascending limb-derived UMOD, which could represent a novel mechanism of kidney protection. PLAIN-LANGUAGE SUMMARY: Sodium/glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors or "flozins" are medications that prevent kidney failure and acute kidney injury in a broad range of patients with kidney disease. However, exactly how these drugs exert their kidney protective effects is incompletely understood. In a large clinical trial involving patients with varying causes of kidney disease, empagliflozin reduced excretion of 2 common proteins in the urine (albumin and uromodulin). The substantial reduction in uromodulin was unexpected and is of particular interest because uromodulin is manufactured in a later part of the kidney beyond the site of action of empagliflozin. New experiments are needed to understand these results and assess whether the effect on uromodulin can explain the benefits of flozins for the kidney.

17Tubular Biomarkers and Chronic Kidney Disease Progression in SPRINT Participants.PubMed

Vasantha Jotwani, Pranav S Garimella, Ronit Katz, et al.
BACKGROUND: Kidney tubular atrophy on biopsy is a strong predictor of chronic kidney disease (CKD) progression, but tubular health is poorly quantified by traditional measures including estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and albuminuria. We hypothesized that urinary biomarkers of impaired tubule function would be associated with faster eGFR declines in persons with CKD. METHODS: We measured baseline urine concentrations of uromodulin, β2-microglobulin (β2m), and α1-microglobulin (α1m) among 2,428 participants of the Systolic Blood Pressure Intervention Trial with an eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m2. We used linear mixed models to evaluate biomarker associations with annualized relative change in eGFR, stratified by randomization arm. RESULTS: At baseline, the mean age was 73 ± 9 years and eGFR was 46 ± 11 mL/min/1.73 m2. In the standard blood pressure treatment arm, each 2-fold higher urinary uromodulin was associated with slower % annual eGFR decline (0.34 [95% CI: 0.08, 0.60]), whereas higher urinary β2m was associated with faster % annual eGFR decline (-0.10 [95% CI: -0.18, -0.02]) in multivariable-adjusted models including baseline eGFR and albuminuria. Associations were weaker and did not reach statistical significance in the intensive blood pressure treatment arm for either uromodulin (0.11 [-0.13, 0.35], p value for interaction by treatment arm = 0.045) or β2m (-0.01 [-0.08, 0.08], p value for interaction = 0.001). Urinary α1m was not independently associated with eGFR decline in the standard (0.01 [-0.22, 0.23]) or intensive (0.03 [-0.20, 0.25]) arm. CONCLUSIONS: Among trial participants with hypertension and CKD, baseline measures of tubular function were associated with subsequent declines in kidney function, although these associations were diminished by intensive blood pressure control.

18Testing protein permeability of dialysis membranes using SDS-PAGE.PubMed

H Mann, H Melzer, A Al-Bashir, et al.
BACKGROUND: Permeability of dialysis membranes for high molecular weight compounds should be similar to that of the glomerular membrane in order to remove uremic toxins like the human kidney does. In order to evaluate permeability of high-flux dialysis membranes SDS-PAGE is applied for examination of filtrate of dialysers during routine dialysis with different membranes. METHOD: SDS-PAGE analysis is performed with silver staining method according to the modification of Melzer (5) and consecutive laser densitometry. RESULTS: The protein pattern of filtrate from dialysis membranes is similar to that of the glomerular membrane containing IgG, transferrin, albumin, alpha-1-microglobulin, retinol binding protein and beta-2-microglobulin. Comparing different membranes there are considerable differences depending on cut-off, charge and adsorption capacity of the particular membrane. In all membranes tested permeability of proteins decreases during one treatment session. CONCLUSION: Protein permeability of high-flux dialysis membranes is similar to the gloemerular membrane but modified according to pore-size, surface charge, adsorption and time on dialysis. In contrast to the glomerular membrane in each of the investigated membranes protein permeability decreases during function.

19Alpha 1-microglobulin: clinical laboratory aspects and applications.PubMed

Joris Penders, Joris R Delanghe
BACKGROUND: Urinary microproteins are becoming increasingly important in clinical diagnostics. They can contribute in the non-invasive early detection of renal abnormalities and the differentiation of various nephrological and urological pathologies. Alpha 1-microglobulin (A1M) is an immunomodulatory protein with a broad spectrum of possible clinical applications and seems a promising marker for evaluation of tubular function. METHOD: We performed a systematic review of the peer-reviewed literature (until end of November 2003) on A1M with emphasis on clinical diagnostic utility and laboratory aspects. CONCLUSIONS: A1M is a 27-kDa glycoprotein, present in various body fluids, with unknown exact biological function. The protein acts as a mediator of bacterial adhesion to polymer surfaces and is involved in inhibiting renal lithogenesis. Because A1M is not an acute phase protein, is stable in a broad range of physiological conditions and sensitive immunoassays have been developed, its measurement can be used for clinical purposes. Unfortunately, international standardisation is still lacking. Altered plasma/serum levels are usually due to impaired liver or kidney functions but are also observed in clinical conditions such as HIV and mood disorders. Urinary A1M provides a non-invasive, inexpensive diagnostic alternative for the diagnosis and monitoring of urinary tract disorders (early detection of tubular disorders such as heavy metal intoxications, diabetic nephropathy, urinary outflow disorders and pyelonephritis).

20Proteomics for the investigation of acute kidney injury.PubMed

Prasad Devarajan
Acute kidney injury (AKI), previously referred to as acute renal failure (ARF), represents an important problem in clinical medicine. Despite significant improvements in therapeutics, the mortality and morbidity associated with AKI remain high. The reasons for this include (a) an incomplete understanding of the underlying pathophysiologic mechanisms, and (b) the lack of early markers for AKI, and hence an unacceptable delay in initiating therapy. Fortunately, the application of innovative technologies such as functional genomics and proteomics to human and animal models of AKI has uncovered several novel genes and proteins that are emerging as biomarkers and novel therapeutic targets. Recent advances in proteomics that hold promise in ischemic AKI, the most common and serious subtype of ARF, are chronicled in this article. These include the identification of biomarkers in the plasma (NGAL and cystatin C) and urine (NGAL, KIM-1, IL-18, cystatin C, alpha 1-microglobulin, fetuin-A, Gro-alpha, and meprin) for the investigation of AKI. It is likely that the AKI panels will be useful for timing the initial insult and assessing the duration of AKI. Based on the differential expression of the biomarkers, it is also likely that the AKI panels will distinguish between the various etiologies of AKI, and predict clinical outcomes.
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