检索问题
坚果生吃的风险有哪些
食用坚果生吃并非绝对安全，主要的风险包括致病细菌感染（如沙门氏菌）、霉菌毒素污染（特别是强致癌物黄曲霉毒素）、以及严重的过敏反应。虽然生坚果保留了原始营养，但研究表明，经过适当烘烤的坚果在保护心脏健康方面与生坚果效果相当，且能降低微生物污染风险。
以下是对生吃坚果潜在风险的详细科学解读。
1. 细菌感染：看不见的“隐形杀手”
生吃坚果最大的隐患之一是细菌污染。很多人认为坚果有硬壳保护，里面是无菌的，这是一种误解。
- 为什么会有细菌？ 坚果在生长过程中通常会掉落在地上，极易接触到土壤中的细菌、动物粪便（如鸟类或农场动物）以及灌溉水。如果在收获后没有经过加热杀菌（如烘烤或巴氏杀菌）就直接食用，这些病原体就会进入人体 。
- 具体的细菌风险：
- 沙门氏菌（Salmonella）与弯曲杆菌（Campylobacter）： 流行病学调查显示，食用生坚果与感染这些病菌之间存在关联。一项针对病例的分析发现，报告感染弯曲杆菌的患者，其饮食习惯中包含生坚果的比例更高 。
- 后果： 这些细菌会导致我们俗称的“急性肠胃炎”，症状包括腹痛、腹泻、发烧和呕吐。对于免疫力较弱的老年人和儿童，这种感染可能非常严重。
- 公众认知的偏差： 尽管生坚果与多次食源性疾病爆发有关，但调查显示，只有约30%的消费者意识到生坚果可能携带致病菌，这使得人们在处理和食用生坚果时往往缺乏警惕 。
2. 霉菌毒素：潜伏的“致癌毒药”
坚果非常容易发霉，而某些霉菌产生的毒素是无法通过肉眼看到的，其中最可怕的是黄曲霉毒素（Aflatoxins）。
- 名词解释：黄曲霉毒素 这是一种由真菌（主要是黄曲霉菌和寄生曲霉菌）产生的剧毒物质。它被国际癌症研究机构列为1类致癌物，意味着它对人类有明确的致癌作用，主要攻击人体的肝脏，长期摄入会显著增加肝癌风险。
- 生坚果的污染现状：
生坚果如果储存环境潮湿或温暖，非常容易滋生霉菌。
- 污染率数据惊人： 一项在巴西进行的研究检测了366份食品样本，发现19.6%的样本含有黄曲霉毒素，其中生花生及其制品的污染最为严重，含量高达1706微克/千克（这远超许多国家的安全标准）。
- 不仅是花生： 在伊朗的一项研究中，研究人员在所有进口的生榛子样本中都检测到了黄曲霉毒素B1，平均浓度为4.20微克/千克 。另一项针对市场坚果的调查甚至发现，某些样本中90%的核桃都受到了污染 。
- 儿童风险更高： 针对黎巴嫩市场的调查显示，坚果中的黄曲霉毒素含量较高，导致当地儿童和青少年对这种毒素的摄入量超过了安全限值（每日耐受摄入量）的3到7倍 。在伊朗的风险评估模型中，食用进口生榛子导致的肝癌风险在儿童群体中比成人群体更高 。
- 烘烤能解决吗？ 这是一个复杂的问题。虽然烘烤可以杀死产生毒素的霉菌，但黄曲霉毒素本身非常耐热，普通的烹饪温度很难将其完全破坏。不过，购买正规渠道经过工业化处理（筛选和品控）的熟坚果，通常比在路边摊或不规范市场购买的散装生坚果更有安全保障。值得注意的是，有研究发现市售的盐焗坚果中有时黄曲霉毒素含量反而比纯生坚果高，这可能是因为不良商家用重口味调料掩盖了劣质坚果的霉味 。因此，生吃的主要风险在于缺乏筛选和处理，容易让人在不知不觉中摄入霉菌。
3. 过敏反应：致命的“免疫风暴”
对于过敏体质的人来说，生坚果可能意味着生命危险。
- 名词解释：IgE介导的反应 这是人体免疫系统的一场“误判”。当过敏者吃下坚果时，身体产生一种叫IgE的抗体，攻击坚果中的蛋白质，引发剧烈的身体反应。
- 主要风险源： 坚果属于“八大过敏原”之一。特别是杏仁、花生、核桃等。杏仁中有至少6种蛋白质被世界卫生组织认定为过敏原 。
- 症状的严重性： 这种过敏反应通常来得很快，轻则皮肤起疹子（荨麻疹）、嘴巴肿胀，重则导致呼吸困难、血压骤降，甚至发生过敏性休克（Anaphylaxis），这是一种危及生命的紧急状况，需要立即注射肾上腺素急救 。虽然烘烤可能会改变某些蛋白质的结构，但大多数坚果过敏原在加热后依然十分强悍，因此对坚果过敏的人，无论是生是熟都必须严格避免 。
4. 消化与营养吸收的“双刃剑”
生吃坚果在营养摄取上也并非全无缺点。
- 质地过硬伤牙齿： 生坚果通常质地坚硬。对于牙齿正在发育的儿童或牙口不好的老年人，咀嚼生坚果可能会导致牙齿磨损或咬合问题。虽然适度咀嚼硬物对儿童颌骨发育有帮助，但必须适量 。
- 特定营养素的缺乏：
一项针对长期严格坚持“生食饮食”（Raw Food Diet）人群的研究发现，虽然他们血液中的β-胡萝卜素水平较高，但番茄红素（Lycopene）的水平却远低于普通人 。
- 名词解释：番茄红素 这是一种红色的色素，主要存在于番茄等食物中，是一种强效抗氧化剂，能帮助身体对抗衰老和疾病。番茄红素通常需要加热和油脂的配合才能被人体通过肠道吸收。长期只吃生食可能会导致这种重要营养素的吸收不足。
- 烘烤并不破坏心脏保护作用： 很多人坚持生吃是因为觉得“加热会破坏营养”。但科学实验证明，干烤和轻微加盐的坚果，在改善血脂、降低坏胆固醇（LDL）和保护心血管方面的效果，与生坚果几乎没有差别 。
- 特殊的“排毒”基因激活： 有趣的是，有细胞实验显示，经过体内模拟消化发酵后的核桃提取物，能够激活结肠细胞中负责“排毒”和抗氧化的基因（如CAT和GSTT2）。研究发现，适度的烘烤并没有削弱核桃这种预防结肠癌的潜力 。这说明熟吃坚果在获得健康益处上并不输给生吃。
总结建议
虽然生坚果是天然食物，但直接食用存在细菌感染和摄入霉菌毒素的风险，且这些风险对于免疫力较低的儿童和老年人尤为突出。
为了安全起见：
- 首选正规包装的烘烤坚果： 工业化的烘烤过程能有效杀灭沙门氏菌等致病菌，且正规厂家会对霉变原料进行筛选。
- 警惕“苦味”坚果： 无论是生吃还是熟吃，一旦吃到苦味或霉味的坚果，请立即吐掉并漱口，这极可能是黄曲霉毒素的信号。
- 妥善储存： 如果购买了生坚果，务必密封放入冰箱冷藏或冷冻，减少霉菌滋生的机会。
References
1An Updated Overview of Almond Allergens.PubMed
Mário Bezerra, Miguel Ribeiro, Gilberto Igrejas
Nutrients. 2021 Jul 27;13(8):2578. doi: 10.3390/nu13082578.
Tree nuts are considered an important food in healthy diets. However, for part of the world's population, they are one of the most common sources of food allergens causing acute allergic reactions that can become life-threatening. They are part of the Big Eight food groups which are responsible for more than 90% of food allergy cases in the United States, and within this group, almond allergies are persistent and normally severe and life-threatening. Almond is generally consumed raw, toasted or as an integral part of other foods. Its dietary consumption is generally associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular diseases. Several almond proteins have been recognized as allergens. Six of them, namely Pru du 3, Pru du 4, Pru du 5, Pru du 6, Pru du 8 and Pru du 10, have been included in the WHO-IUIS list of allergens. Nevertheless, further studies are needed in relation to the accurate characterization of the already known almond allergens or putative ones and in relation to the IgE-binding properties of these allergens to avoid misidentifications. In this context, this work aims to critically review the almond allergy problematic and, specifically, to perform an extensive overview regarding known and novel putative almond allergens.
2Allergy and Asthma: Food Allergies.PubMed
Raj Mehta
FP Essent. 2018 Sep;472:16-19.
Food allergies are immune-mediated allergic adverse reactions that occur after exposure to specific foods. The most commonly recognized food allergies are immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated reactions (eg, urticaria, angioedema, anaphylaxis) that result from exposure to milk, egg, peanut, tree nuts, shellfish, fish, wheat, or soy. However, other foods can cause food allergies. Oral allergy syndrome is a common but underrecognized condition characterized by transient oropharyngeal symptoms that result from ingestion of uncooked fruits or vegetables. Non-IgE-mediated food allergies manifest with more delayed symptoms than IgE-mediated food allergies, and predominately cause gastrointestinal symptoms. Food allergies often are overreported because they may be confused with food intolerances or nonimmunologic adverse food reactions (eg, lactose intolerance, food poisoning, caffeine intolerance). Food allergies are diagnosed using IgE skin tests, IgE serum tests, or oral food challenge tests. These allergies are best managed by avoidance of the food or foods related to the allergy because they require ingestion rather than contact to precipitate symptoms. Injectable epinephrine should be prescribed for patients at risk of anaphylaxis. Careful food label reading and food preparation, awareness, and education are keys to prevention.
3Dietary fibre as an important constituent of the diet.PubMed
Kalina Maćkowiak, Natalia Torlińska-Walkowiak, Barbara Torlińska
Postepy Hig Med Dosw (Online). 2016 Feb 25;70:104-9. doi: 10.5604/17322693.1195842.
The intake of fibre in the diet of a child or an adult, through various foods (such as wholegrain foods, nuts, fruits and vegetables), plays an important role in reducing the risk and lowering the incidence of numerous diseases. The interest of researchers and consumers in the role of diet in the prevention or treatment of many illnesses, and maintaining the general and oral health, has been growing lately. The aim of our study was to underline the role of dietary fibre through its effects on many aspects of the human body and metabolism. Evidence has been found that dietary fibre from whole foods or supplements may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease by improving serum lipids and reducing serum total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol concentrations in adults and children. Increased fibre content decreases the glycaemic index of foods, which leads to a significant improvement in glycaemic response. High fibre intake is associated with reduced risk of colorectal and breast cancer. In contemporary children, the reluctance to chew raw, hard plant foods may result in a risk of malocclusion and a lack of tooth wear, which cause the need for orthodontic intervention. Fibre consumption is associated with high nutritional value and antioxidant status of the diet, enhancing the effects on human health.
4Vegan diet in physiological health promotion.PubMed
O Hänninen, A L Rauma, K Kaartinen, et al.
Acta Physiol Hung. 1999;86(3-4):171-80.
We have performed a number of studies including dietary interventions and cross-sectional studies on subjects consuming uncooked vegan food called living food (LF) and clarified the changes in several parameters related to health risk factors. LF consists of germinated seeds, cereals, sprouts, vegetables, fruits, berries and nuts. Some items are fermented and contain a lot of lactobacilli. The diet is rich in fiber. It has very little sodium, and it contains no cholesterol. Food items like berries and wheat grass juice are rich in antioxidants such as carotenoids and flavonoids. The subjects eating living food show increased levels of carotenoids and vitamins C and E and lowered cholesterol concentration in their sera. Urinary excretion of sodium is only a fraction of the omnivorous controls. Also urinary output of phenol and p-cresol is lowered as are several fecal enzyme levels which are considered harmful. The rheumatoid arthritis patients eating the LF diet reported amelioration of their pain, swelling of joints and morning stiffness which all got worse after finishing LF diet. The composite indices of objective measures showed also improvement of the rheumatoid arthritis patients during the intervention. The fibromyalgic subjects eating LF lost weight compared to their omnivorous controls. The results on their joint stiffness and pain (visual analogue scale), on their quality of sleep, on health assessment questionnaire and on general health questionnaire all improved. It appears that the adoption of vegan diet exemplified by the living food leads to a lessening of several health risk factors to cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Rheumatoid patients subjectively benefited from the vegan diet which was also seen in serum parameters and fecal analyses.
5Effects of daily almond consumption on glycaemia in adults with elevated risk for diabetes: a randomised controlled trial.PubMed
Li-Chu Huang, Gregory C Henderson, Richard D Mattes
Br J Nutr. 2024 Nov 28;132(10):1289-1299. doi: 10.1017/S0007114524001053. Epub 2024 Oct 21.
The purpose of this study was to examine the potential for sustained almond consumption to reduce HbA1c concentrations among individuals with elevated values. A 16-week randomised, parallel-arm, controlled trial was conducted. Eighty-one adults with elevated HbA1c concentrations (> 5·7 %) were randomly assigned to incorporate 2 oz of raw almonds (A: 39) or energy-matched snacks (C: 42) into their daily diets. Body weight, body composition, plasma lipids, HbA1c, plasma vitamin E, glycaemia (by meal tolerance test and continuous glucose monitoring), dietary intake and hedonic responses to test foods were measured at stipulated time points. Participants consuming almonds ingested 253 kcal/d more than participants in the control group ( = 0·02), but this did not result in a significant difference in body weight. No statistically significant differences were observed in HbA1c concentrations, blood chemistries, body composition or glycaemia over time or between groups. However, Healthy Eating Index scores improved within the almond group as compared with the control group ( < 0·001). Additionally, the hedonic rating of almonds within the almond group did not decline as markedly as the control group's reduced liking of the pretzel snack. Alpha-tocopherol increased significantly, and gamma tocopherol tended to decrease in the almond group, indicating compliance with the dietary intervention. Overall, daily ingestion of 2 oz of raw almonds in a self-selected diet for 16 weeks did not alter short-term or longer-term glycaemia or HbA1c concentrations in adults with elevated HbA1c concentrations, but they were well-tolerated hedonically and improved diet quality without promoting weight gain.
6Do dry roasting, lightly salting nuts affect their cardioprotective properties and acceptability?PubMed
Siew Ling Tey, Terryn Robinson, Andrew R Gray, et al.
Eur J Nutr. 2017 Apr;56(3):1025-1036. doi: 10.1007/s00394-015-1150-4. Epub 2016 Jan 8.
PURPOSE: Previous studies have reported improvements in cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors with the consumption of raw nuts. However, around one-third of nuts consumed are roasted and salted. Thus, it is important to determine whether roasting and salting nuts affect the health benefits observed with raw nuts. This study aimed to compare the effects of consuming two different forms of hazelnuts on cardiovascular risk factors and acceptance. METHODS: Using a randomised crossover design, 72 participants were asked to consume 30 g/day of either raw or dry roasted, lightly salted hazelnuts for 28 days each. CVD risk factors were measured at the beginning and end of each treatment period. "Desire to consume" and "overall liking" for both forms of hazelnuts were assessed daily using a 150-mm visual analogue scale. RESULTS: Body composition, blood pressure, plasma total and low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol, apolipoprotein A1 and B100, glucose and α-tocopherol concentrations did not differ between forms of hazelnuts (all P ≥ 0.054). High-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol (P = 0.037) and triacylglycerol (P < 0.001) concentrations were significantly lower following the consumption of dry roasted, lightly salted hazelnuts when compared to the raw hazelnuts. Compared with baseline, consuming both forms of hazelnuts significantly improved HDL-cholesterol and apolipoprotein A1 concentrations, total-C/HDL-C ratio, and systolic blood pressure without significantly changing body composition. Acceptance ratings did not differ between forms of hazelnuts and remained high throughout the study. CONCLUSION: Dry roasting and lightly salting nuts do not appear to negate the cardioprotective effects observed with raw nut consumption, and both forms of nuts are resistant to monotony. Public health messages could be extended to include dry roasted and lightly salted nuts as part of a heart healthy diet.
7In vitro-fermented raw and roasted walnuts induce expression of CAT and GSTT2 genes, growth inhibition, and apoptosis in LT97 colon adenoma cells.PubMed
W Schlörmann, J Lamberty, D Ludwig, et al.
Nutr Res. 2017 Nov;47:72-80. doi: 10.1016/j.nutres.2017.09.004. Epub 2017 Sep 18.
Walnuts are rich in bioactive compounds such as polyunsaturated fatty acids, polyphenols, and dietary fiber. Therefore, the consumption of walnuts can contribute to a healthy diet and may reduce the risk for colon cancer. Heat treatment like roasting may change the chemical composition of walnuts and therefore their chemopreventive properties. Therefore, the hypothesis of the present study is that different roasting conditions (RCs) alter the chemopreventive effects of walnuts. Thus, the aim of the present study was to investigate whether different RCs (RC1=139.7°C/25 min, RC2=154.5°C/20 min, and RC3=185.5°C/25 min) alter the chemopreventive effects of walnuts. Raw and roasted walnuts were subjected to in vitro digestion and fermentation. After treatment of LT97 colon adenoma cells with fermentation supernatants (FSs), expression of CAT, SOD2, GPx1, GSTP1, and GSTT2 genes as well as cell growth and apoptosis was examined. In comparison to the fermentation blank control, walnut FS particularly increased mRNA levels of CAT 1.7-fold and GSTT2 3.1-fold, whereas GPx1 levels were significantly decreased 0.6-fold. Walnut FS decreased growth of adenoma cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner. In particular, higher concentrations of walnut FS (5%) significantly increased the number of early apoptotic cells 2.0-fold and induced caspase-3 activity 6.8-fold compared with the blank control. The roasting process had no direct impact on the observed effects. In sum, our results indicate that walnuts exhibit chemopreventive effects regarding the risk for colon cancer development by inducing expression of genes involved in detoxification (CAT, GSTT2) and by inducing growth inhibition and apoptosis in colon adenoma cells unaffected by moderate roasting.
8U.S. Consumers' Tree Nut Food Safety Knowledge, Perceptions, and Handling Practices across Demographic Groups.PubMed
Maeve Riley Swinehart, Yaohua Feng
Foods. 2023 Nov 28;12(23):4289. doi: 10.3390/foods12234289.
Tree nuts are often perceived as presenting a low risk for foodborne illness, despite their association with several foodborne outbreaks and recalls in recent years. An online survey was designed to assess how consumers' food safety knowledge, perception of risks and benefits, and preferred sources for food safety information influence their tree nut handling behavior. Participants ( = 981) who soaked tree nuts or prepared nut-based dairy analogs (NBDAs) at home completed the survey. Their responses indicated insufficient knowledge about potential contaminations of tree nuts. Only 25% of participants had heard of a tree nut-related outbreak or recall. Few (30%) participants perceived a risk of contracting a foodborne illness from tree nuts. The participants were more concerned with the health benefits than potential microbial risks of raw tree nuts and preferred government agencies for tree nut food safety information. Based on a cluster analysis, demographics with lower food safety knowledge and risk perceptions (ages 18-24 or 45 and above, female, suburban and rural communities, have less than a bachelor's degree, and earned less than USD 100,000 annually) tended to engage in risky tree nut handling practices ( < 0.05). The findings of this study support the development of audience-targeted food safety extension materials for tree nuts.
9Aflatoxin in raw and salt-roasted nuts (pistachios, peanuts and walnuts) sold in markets of tabriz, iran.PubMed
Alireza Ostadrahimi, Fereshteh Ashrafnejad, Abdolhassan Kazemi, et al.
Jundishapur J Microbiol. 2014 Jan;7(1):e8674. doi: 10.5812/jjm.8674. Epub 2014 Jan 1.
BACKGROUND: Nuts are one of the main consumed snacks worldwide and also have an important role among Iranian's food habits. Natural contamination of nuts with aflatoxin is unavoidable and causes a special challenge for nuts safety and quality. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this research was to study the aflatoxin contamination in commercially-available nuts (pistachio, walnut and peanut) in the markets of Tabriz, Iran. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Sixty two samples of 50 g salt-roasted peanuts and pistachios and 109 samples of 50 g pure pistachios, walnuts and peanuts were collected from different areas of local markets. After the initial preparations, ELISA test was performed for Aflatoxin measurement. RESULTS: Result showed that walnut (90%) and pure pistachio (2.3%) were the most and least contaminated samples, respectively. Mean aflatoxin contamination in the salt-roasted samples (19.88 ± 19.41 µg/kg) was significantly higher than the pure ones (6.51 ± 9.4 µg/kg) (P < 0.001). Respectively, 58.6%, 48.4% and 47.6% of salt-roasted pistachios, salt-roasted peanuts and walnut samples had aflatoxin contamination, which were more than the maximum tolerated level of Iran (MTL, 15 ppb). CONCLUSIONS: It was concluded that aflatoxin content of nuts should be monitored regularly to minimize the risk of aflatoxin hazard and ensure the food safety and quality.
10Occurrence of total aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and deoxynivalenol in foodstuffs available on the Lebanese market and their impact on dietary exposure of children and teenagers in Beirut.PubMed
L Soubra, D Sarkis, C Hilan, et al.
Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess. 2009 Feb;26(2):189-200. doi: 10.1080/02652030802366108.
Mycotoxins are fungal metabolites commonly present in food and constituting a potential threat to food safety. Total aflatoxins (AFT), ochratoxin A (OTA) and deoxynivalenol (DON) are among the most widespread mycotoxins. We assessed the occurrence of AFT, OTA and DON in some foodstuffs available on the Lebanese market and evaluated the potential risk to the health of children and teenagers in Beirut from dietary exposure to these mycotoxins. Analytical data on the contamination of raw and processed cereals and cereal-based products, pulses and nuts were collected. The mean levels of AFT, OTA and DON were calculated for each food items. Levels of dietary exposure were obtained by combining food consumption data with the mean mycotoxin levels, adopting a deterministic approach. Intakes were calculated for average and high consumers (75th and 95th percentile) among children and teenagers, and compared with the provisional tolerable daily intake (PTDI) or provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) of the respective mycotoxin. The results showed that mycotoxin levels in the food samples were generally below national/European maximum limits. However, high levels of AFT, OTA and DON were found in some samples of nuts, biscuits and bread. The calculated intake for AFT exceeded its respective PTDI in all groups by a factor ranging from 3 to 7. The intakes of OTA and DON were found to be below the threshold of toxicological concern established for these mycotoxins by international expert groups, although the intake of DON in children at the highest percentile (P95) was close to its PTDI. Our study highlights the need to reconsider the maximum permissible levels of total aflatoxins in some foodstuffs and to establish regulatory guidelines regarding OTA and DON. The results also emphasise the need for routine monitoring of the levels of mycotoxin contamination in foodstuffs that are highly consumed by Lebanese children and teenagers, i.e. cereals and cereal-based products.
11Decontamination of raw foods using ozone-based sanitization techniques.PubMed
Jennifer J Perry, Ahmed E Yousef
Annu Rev Food Sci Technol. 2011;2:281-98. doi: 10.1146/annurev-food-022510-133637.
Popular foods such as fresh produce and dry nuts are increasingly implicated in outbreaks of food-transmitted diseases. These products are not amenable to conventional processing technologies; therefore, many alternative decontamination methods are actively investigated. Ozone is a versatile sanitizer with promising applications in some high-risk foods. This antimicrobial agent is active against a broad spectrum of microorganisms, and it can be used effectively in its gaseous or aqueous state. The flexibility afforded by ozone use makes it a viable option for application on easy-to-damage products like fresh produce. If process parameters are adequately controlled, ozone treatment can enhance safety and increase shelf life without adversely affecting product quality. Despite these advantages, ozone may not be suitable for some applications, including treatment of liquid foods and products rich in unsaturated fats and soluble proteins. Ozone, as a powerful oxidizer, must be carefully controlled at all times, and equipment must be rigorously maintained to ensure safety of workers.
12Case-case analysis of Campylobacter and Salmonella - using surveillance data for outbreak investigations and monitoring routine risk factors.PubMed
K Pogreba-Brown, P O'Connor, J Matthews, et al.
Epidemiol Infect. 2018 Nov;146(15):1916-1921. doi: 10.1017/S0950268818002200. Epub 2018 Aug 10.
Utilising routine surveillance data, this study presents a method for generating a baseline comparison that can be used in future foodborne outbreak investigations following a case-case methodology. Salmonella and Campylobacter cases (2012-2015) from Maricopa County, AZ were compared to determine differences in risk factors, symptoms and demographics. For foods and other risk factors, adjusted odds ratios were developed using Campylobacter as the reference. Comparisons were also made for three major Salmonella subtypes, Typhimurium, Enteritidis and Poona as compared with Campylobacter. Salmonella cases were younger, while Campylobacter cases were more Hispanic and female. Campylobacter cases reported consuming peppers, sprouts, poultry, queso fresco, eggs and raw nuts more and reported contact with animal products, birds, visiting a farm or dairy, owning a pet, a sick pet, swimming in a river, lake or pond, or handling multiple raw meats more. Salmonella cases reported visiting a petting zoo and contact with a reptile more. There were significant variations by Salmonella subtype in both foods and exposures. We recommend departments conduct this analysis to generate a baseline comparison and a running average of relevant odds ratios allowing staff to focus on trace-back of contaminated food items earlier in the outbreak investigation process.
13Determination and risk assessment of aflatoxin B1 in the kernel of imported raw hazelnuts from Eastern Azerbaijan Province of Iran.PubMed
Parnian Samimi, Ramin Aslani, Ebrahim Molaee-Aghaee, et al.
Sci Rep. 2024 Mar 22;14(1):6864. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-57422-2.
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is widespread and seriously threatens public health worldwide. This study aimed to investigate AFB1 in imported hazelnut samples in northwest of Iran (Eastern Azerbaijan Province) using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with a Fluorescent Detector (HPLC-FLD). In all tested samples AFB1 was detected. The mean concentration of AFB1 was 4.20 μg/kg and ranged from 3.145 to 8.13 μg/kg. All samples contained AFB1 levels within the maximum acceptable limit except for one sample. Furthermore, the human health risk assessment of AFB1 from consuming imported hazelnuts by Iranian children and adults was evaluated based on the margin of exposure (MoE) and quantitative liver cancer risk approaches. The MoE mean for children was 2529.76, while for adults, it was 8854.16, indicating a public health concern. The present study found that the risk of developing liver cancer among Iranian children was 0.11100736 per 100,000 people, and in the Iranian adult population was 0.0314496 cancers per 100,000 people. Since environmental conditions potentially affect aflatoxin levels in nuts, countries are advised to monitor aflatoxin contents in imported nuts, especially from countries with a conducive climate for mold growth.
14The aflatoxin B1 content of peanut-based foods in Iran: a systematic review.PubMed
Parisa Sadighara, Kiandokht Ghanati
Rev Environ Health. 2021 Jul 29;37(1):29-33. doi: 10.1515/reveh-2021-0065. Print 2022 Mar 28.
BACKGROUNDS: One of the common consumed snacks among Iranian is nuts. The aim of this systematic review was to determine the rate of peanut contamination with aflatoxin B1 (AfB1) in different provinces of the Iran. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The research studies with keywords "aflatoxin B1", "peanut", "peanut butter", "peanut oil", "coated peanut", "roasted peanut", "snack peanut" were searched in PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, Google Scholar and scientific information databases (SID), regardless of publication time. A total of 43 studies were obtained and only six articles were finally selected according to exclusion and inclusion criteria. Margin of Exposure (MOE) and Hazard Quotient (HQ) were also calculated to evaluate the oral exposure of AfB1 through peanuts and peanut-based products. RESULTS: The contamination of AFB1 in peanut was high in Mashhad and Tehran compared with the other cities. The value of MOE was calculated less than 10,000. The results of MOE indicate that there are chances of the risk of developing cancer and these products may not be safe. Therefore, AFB1 levels should be measured regularly in peanut products in large cities.
15Mycotoxin monitoring for commercial foodstuffs in Taiwan.PubMed
Ming-Tzai Chen, Yuan-Hsin Hsu, Tzu-Sui Wang, et al.
J Food Drug Anal. 2016 Jan;24(1):147-156. doi: 10.1016/j.jfda.2015.06.002. Epub 2015 Jul 22.
Mycotoxins are toxic food contaminants that are naturally produced by certain fungi. They induce negative effects on human health by making food unsafe for consumption. In this study, analyses were performed to determine the levels and incidence of aflatoxins (AFs) in peanut products, tree nuts, spices, and Coix seeds; ochratoxin A (OTA) in wheat and roasted coffee, as well as OTA and AFs in rice; and citrinin (CIT) in red yeast rice (RYR) products. A total of 712 samples from nine different food categories were collected between 2012 and 2013. The samples were analyzed over 2 years for AFs, OTA, and CIT by methods recommended by the Ministry of Health and Welfare. These official analytical methods were extensively validated in-house and through interlaboratory trials. The analytical values of suspected contaminated specimens were confirmed by liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry analysis to identify the specific mycotoxin present in the sample. We show that 689 samples (96.8%) complied with the regulations set by the Ministry of Health and Welfare. AFs were found in four peanut-candy products, one peanut-flour product, one pistachio product, one Sichuan-pepper product, and one Coix seed product. All had exceeded the maximum levels of 15 parts per billion for peanut and 10 parts per billion for other food products. Furthermore, 14 RYR samples contained CIT above 5 parts per million, and one RYR tablet exceeded the maximum amount allowed. Instances of AFs in substandard Sichuan pepper and Coix seeds were first detected in Taiwan. Measures were taken by the relevant authorities to remove substandard products from the market in order to decrease consumer exposure to mycotoxin. Border control measures were applied to importing food commodities with a higher risk of mycotoxin contamination, such as peanut, Sichuan pepper, and RYR products. Declining trends were observed in the noncompliance rate of AFs in peanut products, as well as that of CIT in RYR raw materials monitored from 2010 to 2013.
16Interacting Abiotic Factors Affect Growth and Aflatoxin B Production Profiles of Strains on Pistachio-Based Matrices and Pistachio Nuts.PubMed
Alaa Baazeem, Esther Garcia-Cela, Angel Medina, et al.
Front Microbiol. 2021 Jan 20;11:624007. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.624007. eCollection 2020.
Pistachio nuts are an economically important commodity produced by many countries. They can be colonized by mycotoxigenic fungi, especially , resulting in contamination with , especially aflatoxin B (AFB), a Class 1a carcinogen. The objectives were to examine the effect of interactions between the two key abiotic factors, temperature and water activity (a ) on (a) growth and AFB production by four strains of isolated from pistachio nuts, on a milled pistachio nut medium modified ionically (NaCl) and non-ionically (glycerol) in the range 20-35°C and 0.995-0.85 a , (b) colonization of layers of raw pistachio nuts stored at different interacting temperature x a conditions and on relative AFB production and (c) develop models to produce contour maps of the optimal and marginal boundary conditions for growth and AFB production by up to 4 strains of this species. On pistachio nut-based media, optimum growth of four strains of was at 0.98-0.95 a and 30-35°C. Optimum AFB production was at 30-35°C and 0.98 a . No significant differences in growth was found on ionic and non-ionically modified media. Colonization of layers of raw pistachio nuts was slower and contamination with AFB significantly less than in studies. Contour maps based on the pooled data for up to four strains (, ) showed the optimum and marginal conditions for growth and AFB production. These data can be used to identify those conditions which represent a high, intermediate or low risk of colonization and AFB contamination in the pistachio nut processing chain. These results are discussed in the context of the development of appropriate intervention strategies to minimize AFB contamination of this economically important commodity.
17Diet and cancer of the stomach: a case-control study in Greece.PubMed
D Trichopoulos, G Ouranos, N E Day, et al.
Int J Cancer. 1985 Sep 15;36(3):291-7.
A case-control study focusing on the role of diet in the etiology of gastric cancer was undertaken in Piraeus, the sister city of Athens, in a population characterized by ethnic homogeneity but substantial heterogeneity with respect to dietary habits. The case series consisted of 110 consecutive patients with histologically confirmed adenocarcinoma of the stomach, admitted to two teaching hospitals during a 3-year period; the control series consisted of orthopedic patients admitted to a nearby hospital for accidents, fractures and other orthopedic disorders, during the same time period. Dietary histories concerning the frequency of consumption (per month or per week) of about 80 food items were obtained by the same interviewer. Cases reported significantly less frequent consumption of lemons, oranges, brown bread, and raw, salad-type vegetables (particularly lettuce, onions and cucumbers) and, independently, significantly more frequent consumption of pasta, beans and nuts. A relative risk of about 40 was found between extreme quintiles when the above 9 food items were combined in a linear risk score. Use of an index constructed from the study material will clearly overestimate the level of risk between the extreme quintiles, but nevertheless the risk differences appear noteworthy, and consistent with the international variation in the incidence of gastric cancer. No significant associations were found with alcoholic beverages, coffee or tea.
18[Aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in food and risks to human health].PubMed
Eloisa Dutra Caldas, Saulo Cardoso Silva, João Nascimento Oliveira
Rev Saude Publica. 2002 Jun;36(3):319-23. doi: 10.1590/s0034-89102002000300010.
OBJECTIVES: The presence of mycotoxins in food has been associated with several human diseases, and health authorities have taken actions to decrease the ingestion of these compounds in the diet. A study was carried out to assess aflatoxins and ochratoxin A concentrations found in food, and to evaluate the potential risk to human health resulting from mycotoxin exposure. METHODS: Between July 1998 to December 2001, 366 food samples were analyzed, including peanuts and its products, nuts, maize, oat and/or wheat products, rice and beans. Samples were processed and the extracted mycotoxins were detected and separated using thin layer chromatography, and then quantified with fluorescence. RESULTS: Aflatoxins were detected in 19.6% of the samples: raw peanuts and its products, pop corn, maize and Brazilian nuts (>2mg/kg). Peanuts and its products showed the highest levels of aflatoxin contamination (34.7%) with up to 1280 mg/kg of AFB1+AFG1 and 1706 mg/kg of total aflatoxins. Of the positive samples, AFB1 was detected in 98.5%, AFB2 in 93%, AFG1 in 66.7%, and AFG2 in 65.4%. Ochratoxin A was not detected (<25 mg/kg) in any sample analyzed. CONCLUSION: It was found that contamination levels mainly seen in peanuts and its products exceed Brazilian regulated standards, and they can be a potential risk to regular consumers of these products. Food producers' awareness allied to monitoring programs is essential to reduce human exposure to these compounds and prevent ensuing chronic diseases.
19[Effect of the elimination diet in psoriasis: a clinical case].PubMed
A A Barilo, S V Smirnova, A A Sinyakov
Vopr Pitan. 2022;91(4):90-96. doi: 10.33029/0042-8833-2022-91-4-90-96. Epub 2022 Jul 1.
Psoriasis (PS) is a multifactorial disease with a dominant role of genetic predisposition, but the questions of PS etiology and pathogenesis still remain open. The development of PS can be facilitated by environmental factors, as well as a violation of the skin barrier and immune imbalance. In the literature of recent years, an association in clinical practice between PS and atopic diseases (atopic dermatitis, bronchial asthma, allergic rhinitis) has been increasingly reported. As a result of the increase in the prevalence of allergic diseases in the world, a special role is given to the study of nutrition, in particular food allergy in the development of PS. An elimination diet under food allergy is the main type of etiotropic therapy that prevents the launch of immunopathological inflammatory reactions. However, the literature does not provide data on the positive effect of the elimination effect in food allergy in patients with psoriasis. of this work was to present a clinical case of the effectiveness of the elimination diet for food allergy in a patient with PS. . A specific allergological examination of a 65-year old patient with widespread PS (suffering from the age of 25) was carried out: determination of the concentration of total immunoglobulin E (IgE), eosinophilic cationic protein and allergen-specific IgE to food, pollen, fungal allergens in the blood serum by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, skin prick testing with food and pollen allergens. Taking into account the specific allergological examination, the patient was prescribed a diet with the elimination of causally significant allergens, including cross-reacting ones, for a period of 1-3 months (with the exception of chicken eggs, cereals, buckwheat, baker's yeast and products based on yeast fermentation, cereal products (bread, bakery, rolled oats, bran, oatmeal cookies, cereals, pasta); as well as peanuts, smoked sausages, coffee, cocoa, ice cream, sherbet, sesame, sorghum, honey and bee products, strawberries, wild strawberries, citrus, legumes, soybeans, sorrel, herbal teas, tree fruits (raw apples, peaches, cherries; nuts, exotic fruits), celery, raw carrots, tomatoes). . The demonstrated clinical case indicates that the appointment of an elimination diet in patients with PS with concomitant food allergies contributes to the rapid regression of the skin process. The increased concentration of total IgE in blood serum revealed during patient examination, the presence of positive reactions to food and pollen allergens according to the results of skin prick testing and the determination of allergen-specific IgE, the positive food elimination effect demonstrate the important role of allergic reactions in the development of skin lesions in PS. The presented observation demonstrates the importance of conducting a specific allergic examination in patients with PS, including an allergic history, determining the concentration of total and allergen-specific IgE, and eosinophilic cationic protein in blood serum, studying the spectrum of sensitization to food, pollen and fungal allergens by skin prick testing. . Thus, as a result of the study, it was found that the appointment of an individual elimination diet, taking into account the results of a specific allergological examination, can contribute not only to the effective resolution of foci of psoriatic skin lesions, but also to the prevention of the progression of the systemic inflammatory process, reducing the risk of comorbid conditions and, therefore, improving the life quality of patients with psoriasis.
20Long-term strict raw food diet is associated with favourable plasma beta-carotene and low plasma lycopene concentrations in Germans.PubMed
Ada L Garcia, Corinna Koebnick, Peter C Dagnelie, et al.
Br J Nutr. 2008 Jun;99(6):1293-300. doi: 10.1017/S0007114507868486. Epub 2007 Nov 21.
Dietary carotenoids are associated with a reduced risk of chronic diseases. Raw food diets are predominantly plant-based diets that are practised with the intention of preventing chronic diseases by virtue of their high content of beneficial nutritive substances such as carotenoids. However, the benefit of a long-term adherence to these diets is controversial since little is known about their adequacy. Therefore, we investigated vitamin A and carotenoid status and related food sources in raw food diet adherents in Germany. Dietary vitamin A, carotenoid intake, plasma retinol and plasma carotenoids were determined in 198 (ninety-two male and 106 female) strict raw food diet adherents in a cross-sectional study. Raw food diet adherents consumed on average 95 weight% of their total food intake as raw food (approximately 1800 g/d), mainly fruits. Raw food diet adherents had an intake of 1301 retinol activity equivalents/d and 16.7 mg/d carotenoids. Plasma vitamin A status was normal in 82% of the subjects (> or = 1.05 micromol/l) and 63% had beta-carotene concentrations associated with chronic disease prevention (> or = 0.88 micromol/l). In 77% of subjects the lycopene status was below the reference values for average healthy populations (< 0.45 micromol/l). Fat contained in fruits, vegetables and nuts and oil consumption was a significant dietary determinant of plasma carotenoid concentrations (beta-carotene r 0.284; P < 0.05; lycopene r 0.168; P = 0.024). Long-term raw food diet adherents showed normal vitamin A status and achieve favourable plasma beta-carotene concentrations as recommended for chronic disease prevention, but showed low plasma lycopene levels. Plasma carotenoids in raw food adherents are predicted mainly by fat intake.