引言：自然界中，快速生长的植物往往因其结构松散、强度不足而被认为“不成材”，如一些速生树种。然而，竹子作为地球上生长速度最快的植物之一，却以其卓越的力学性能颠覆了这一普遍认知。毛竹（Moso bamboo）等竹种能在短短40-50天内从竹笋长到10-20米高，并在3-5年内即可用于多种用途 1。这种惊人的生长速度并未以牺牲材料强度为代价，反而展现出高硬度和柔韧性的独特结合，使其成为一种理想的天然建材 1。
竹子的快速生长与高强度特性之间看似矛盾，实则通过其精巧的多级结构和复杂的生物学调控机制实现了协同统一。这种独特的协同机制使得竹子不仅能够适应快速生长的需求，同时也能够承受严苛的自然环境考验，保持其细长结构的机械稳定性 23。正是基于其独特的生物学特性和优异的力学性能，竹子在应对全球气候变化、环境污染和自然资源枯竭等挑战的背景下，作为一种可再生、可持续的绿色建材，其重要性日益凸显 4。
本综述旨在深入探讨竹子快速生长与高强度特性之间的协同机制，具体包括竹子的生长模式、分子生理调控、多级结构设计及其对力学性能的影响。此外，还将系统总结竹材作为建材的应用潜力，包括其基础力学性能、竹基复合材料的强化机制与应用案例，以及竹建材的耐久性与环境适应性。最终，本研究将评估竹子作为建材的可持续性和生态价值，以期为未来竹资源的合理开发利用、新型竹基材料的设计以及可持续建筑的发展提供理论依据和实践指导。
1. 竹子的快速生长机制与生物学基础
竹子以其惊人的生长速度在植物界独树一帜，能够在短时间内迅速拔高，其奥秘深藏于其独特的生长机制和精密的生物学调控网络之中。与大多数通过次生生长增加径向维度和木材密度的乔木不同，竹子主要通过节间伸长实现快速的高度增长，且其茎秆在生长早期便已达到最终直径。这种独特的生长模式不仅使其成为生物质生产的“冠军”，也为其优异的力学性能奠定了基础，使其在快速生长的同时保持结构强度，成为一种重要的非木材森林植物 5。本节将深入解析竹子快速生长的生物学基础，探讨其生长模式、细胞动力学特征以及相关的分子与生理调控机制，从而揭示竹子为何能实现生长速度与材料强度的协同。
1.1 竹子的生长模式与细胞动力学特征
竹子的快速生长主要由其独特的居间分生组织（intercalary meristems）主导，这与树木主要通过形成层进行次生生长（径向加粗）的模式截然不同。在竹子的生长过程中，竹笋从地下茎抽出后，其直径在很短时间内即可达到最大，随后主要依靠节间细胞的快速分裂和伸长实现高度的迅速增加 6。
具体而言，竹子的每个节间都包含一个居间分生组织，这个分生组织在节的上方和下方均存在，持续产生新的细胞并促进细胞伸长。研究发现，竹子节间的生长表现出逻辑斯蒂模式（logistic pattern），即初期生长缓慢，随后进入快速生长期，最终趋于平稳 7。以毛竹（Phyllostachys edulis）为例，其快速生长的节间包含两个关键区域：一个约1厘米长的细胞分裂区（cell division zone, DZ）和一个可达12厘米长的细胞伸长区（cell elongation zone）6。在快速生长期，居间分生组织内的细胞分裂非常活跃，每天可以产生数亿个细胞，并伴随着细胞的迅速伸长，从而驱动整个竹秆的拔高。例如，毛竹每天可伸长11.8厘米，细胞伸长区每天可产生约5.7亿个细胞 6。
与树木的次生生长模式相比，树木通过形成层细胞的径向分裂来增加茎干的直径，形成年轮，并持续增厚木质部以提供支撑。而竹子在出笋后节间长度和直径的生长几乎是同步进行的，一旦达到特定高度，节间便不再加粗，而是主要进行细胞壁的次生增厚和木质化，从而在保持细长结构的同时获得高强度 6。这种居间分生组织主导的生长模式，使得竹子能够将生物质生产的能量高效地集中于纵向生长，从而实现惊人的生长速率。此外，有研究表明，与缓慢生长的竹子变种相比，正常竹子节间分生组织内细胞壁生物合成和细胞分裂相关基因的表达水平显著上调，进一步证实了这些基因在快速生长中的关键作用 8。快速生长的竹笋，其分生组织中的基因调控网络在原形成层分化、居间分生组织形成和维管组织发育中起着关键作用，并且与激素信号和脂质代谢相关的关键调控基因在其中具有特定的时空表达模式 9。
1.2 生长相关的分子与生理调控
竹子的快速生长离不开复杂的分子与生理调控网络，其中植物激素和关键基因扮演着至关重要的角色。赤霉素（Gibberellins, GAs）、油菜素内酯（Brassinosteroids, BRs）、生长素（Auxin）和细胞分裂素（Cytokinin）等植物激素的协同作用，以及LBD转录因子等基因的精确调控，共同促进了竹子节间的快速伸长和细胞壁的有效厚化，为高强度特性的形成奠定分子基础。
植物激素的调控作用：
- 赤霉素（GAs）：赤霉素在竹子节间伸长中发挥关键作用。研究表明，外源施加赤霉素可以显著增加竹子节间的长度，并影响木质素的凝结 10。在毛竹幼苗中，GA处理后的转录组分析揭示了光合作用相关基因的表达下调，这与叶绿素浓度降低和光合速率下降一致。此外，GA还可能通过调节反义转录本（cis-NATs）和选择性剪接（AS）事件来参与生长调控，例如LAC4及其对应的cis-NATs可能参与木质素积累，进而影响细胞壁组成 10。
- 油菜素内酯（BRs）：油菜素内酯是另一种促进竹子快速生长的重要植物激素。研究证实，BR对毛竹幼苗和竹笋的生长至关重要 11。通过抑制BR的生物合成，可观察到竹笋生长的停滞，而外源施加BR则能促进鳞叶伸长和叶片与鳞叶连接处的倾斜 11。BR通过调节细胞壁相关基因、过氧化氢代谢基因和生长素相关基因的表达来调控竹子的生长 11。此外，BR还能与类金属元素共同调节植物的生物学过程，调控细胞信号、初级和次级代谢、生物分子串扰以及氧化还原稳态等关键过程 12。在竹子节间的细胞分裂区（DZ），包括BR在内的多种激素浓度均高于细胞伸长区（EZ），提示它们在细胞分裂和初期生长中的重要性 13。
- 生长素（Auxin）和细胞分裂素（Cytokinin）：生长素和细胞分裂素在竹子节间快速生长中也扮演重要角色。在毛竹快速生长的早期阶段，较低节段（F4）含有较高浓度的生长素和细胞分裂素，以及赤霉素，这与该区域活跃的细胞分裂活动相对应 14。多组学分析揭示了植物激素代谢和信号转导通路在竹子快速生长阶段的活跃 15。此外，对毛竹不同形态变异的研究也发现，激素信号通路，特别是生长素和细胞分裂素，在秆形变异中发挥关键作用，揭示了复杂的激素调控级联 16。
- LBD转录因子：LBD（Lateral Organ Boundaries Domain）转录因子是一类在植物生长发育中起关键作用的基因家族。在竹子中，PePREs基因（PRE类HLH转录因子）被鉴定为参与节间伸长的重要基因。这些基因在毛竹的节间和叶鞘连接处高表达，并且在伸长节段的基部表达水平高于成熟顶部。过表达PePREs基因可以促进拟南芥的下胚轴和叶柄伸长，并加速开花，提示其在竹子快速生长机制中的积极作用 17。
其他分子机制：
- 转录组重编程：在竹子节间生长过程中，细胞分裂区和伸长区存在明显的转录组差异。细胞分裂相关的基因在DZ高表达，而光合作用、细胞壁生长和次级代谢相关的基因在EZ显著上调 13。这种转录组的动态变化确保了不同生长阶段的细胞功能特化。
- MYB转录因子：MYB转录因子在竹子细胞壁木质化中具有重要作用。例如，BmMYB83在可能存在木质素沉积的细胞（如原生木质部导管和纤维细胞）中特异性表达，其过表达能够促进转基因植物的细胞壁木质化 13。此外，在毛竹秆颈发育过程中，MYB家族中的转录因子（如）也发挥关键作用，参与细胞壁松弛和重塑以及次级代谢 18。
- miRNA调控：微RNA（miRNAs）作为重要的转录后调控因子，在竹子节间快速生长和木质化中发挥作用。研究发现，在毛竹节间生长中，有63个miRNA差异表达，这些miRNA调控着许多下游转录因子和激素响应基因 1419。miRNA-基因-植物激素的网络协同调控了竹子的快速生长和组织分化 19。
- 氮素供应机制：竹子快速生长还需要充足的养分供应，尤其是氮。研究表明，毛竹笋（子代竹鞭）的快速生长主要依赖于亲代竹鞭提供的氮素，以及竹鞭根系吸收的氮素。氮素的获取策略在不同生长阶段有所转变，从早期主要由亲代竹鞭提供，到后期则主要由竹鞭根系吸收。PeHDZ23987基因被鉴定为氮素转运的关键基因，它能激活相关基因的表达，从而增强竹子对氮素的吸收效率 20。
综上所述，竹子的快速生长是植物激素、转录因子、miRNA等分子层面的精细调控，以及高效养分输送机制协同作用的结果。这些机制共同促进了竹子节间细胞的高速分裂和伸长，并在宏观上表现出惊人的生长速度，同时为后续的细胞壁厚化和木质素沉积提供了充足的“原材料”和精确的“指令”，最终保障了竹子在高强度下快速生长的特性。
2. 竹子多级结构与高强度性能的关联性
竹子的高强度性能并非偶然，而是其在长期进化过程中形成的多级结构优化设计的结果。从微观的纤维细胞和细胞壁，到中观的维管束分布和梯度密度，再到宏观的管状形态和生长应力平衡，竹子在不同尺度上都展现出精巧的结构设计，使其能够在快速生长的同时，拥有出色的力学强度和韧性，远超许多生长缓慢的木材。这种多级结构的协同作用，是竹子作为优质建材的内在基础。
2.1 微观结构：纤维细胞与细胞壁的强化设计
竹材的优异力学性能首先源于其独特的纤维细胞和细胞壁的强化设计。竹纤维，作为竹材主要的结构单元，其形态特征、细胞壁结构以及化学组成都经过了精密的优化，使其具备出色的拉伸、压缩和弯曲性能。
纤维形态特征：
竹纤维通常比木材纤维更长、更细，具有更高的长宽比。这种几何特征使得竹纤维在承载应力时能够更有效地传递载荷，减少应力集中，从而提高材料的整体韧性和抗断裂能力。较长的纤维长度能够提供更好的互锁和搭接，尤其是在竹基复合材料中，这对于增强界面结合和载荷传递效率至关重要。例如，研究发现，长竹纤维与水泥基体的界面结合优于短纤维，能显著提高复合材料的力学强度 21。
细胞壁多层结构与微纤丝排列：
竹纤维的细胞壁呈现出独特的多层结构，其纤维素微纤丝的排列角度（MicroFibril Angle, MFA）在不同层之间存在梯度变化，这是其高强度的关键因素之一 22。典型的毛竹纤维细胞壁由初生壁（Primary Cell Wall, PCW）和次生壁（Secondary Cell Wall, SCW）组成，其中SCW又常分为多层（如S1、S2、S3层等），并可能包含交替的窄层和宽层 22。
- 初生壁（PCW）：初生壁中的微纤丝通常呈现无序或网状结构，微纤丝角度接近90°，这赋予细胞在生长初期一定的柔韧性 22。
- 次生壁（SCW）：次生壁是力学强度的主要贡献者。在次生壁中，微纤丝以螺旋状缠绕，并且其排列角度在不同层之间存在显著差异。在窄层中，MFA可以从外层的约70°逐渐过渡到内层的约30°；而在宽层中，MFA通常较小，介于5°至20°之间 22。这种从小MFA（近似轴向排列）到大MFA（近似横向排列）的梯度变化，使得竹纤维能够同时抵抗轴向拉伸应力和横向剪切应力。小MFA的层（如靠近纤维内腔的宽层）提供了优异的轴向拉伸强度和刚度，而大MFA的层则有助于提高纤维的韧性和抗剪切能力。这种多层微纤丝的螺旋缠绕结构，类似于复合材料中的层合板设计，实现了强度与韧性的完美结合 22。
- 纤维素结晶度：纤维素是竹细胞壁中主要的结构多糖，其高度结晶的特性赋予纤维素微纤丝极高的拉伸强度。竹纤维中较高的纤维素结晶度意味着更多的纤维素分子链紧密排列，通过氢键形成稳定的晶体区域，从而显著提升了单纤维的力学性能。
化学组成：
竹纤维的细胞壁主要由纤维素、半纤维素和木质素组成，这三种组分的比例和分布对力学性能有着决定性影响。
- 纤维素：作为主要骨架，纤维素提供了主要的拉伸强度。竹纤维中高含量的纤维素（通常占40-50%）是其高强度的直接原因。
- 木质素：木质素是一种复杂的酚类聚合物，填充在纤维素微纤丝之间，将纤维素、半纤维素胶结在一起，形成坚硬的复合结构。木质素的存在增强了细胞壁的刚度和抗压强度，并赋予竹材一定的疏水性。在弯曲应力下，木质素有助于维持细胞壁的完整性 23。有研究显示，弯曲茎秆的毛竹，其细胞壁中的木质素含量显著提高约9%，这表明木质素在抵抗机械应力方面的重要性 23。
- 半纤维素：半纤维素填充在纤维素微纤丝和木质素之间，为细胞壁提供了一定的柔韧性，并参与细胞壁的交联。
与树木纤维的差异：
相较于木材，竹材的纤维素含量通常更高，木质素含量相对较低，且其纤维素微纤丝的MFA通常更小（更接近于轴向排列），这使得竹纤维具有更高的拉伸强度和弹性模量。例如，Pseudoxytenanthera bamboo（一种竹子品种）的拉伸强度可达496.73 MPa，弯曲强度为235.57 MPa，抗压强度为68.66 MPa 24，这些数值与一些工程木材相当甚至更高。此外，竹纤维的独特多层细胞壁结构和微纤丝排列梯度，使其在承受外部载荷时能够表现出更高的效率和更优异的抗损伤能力。这种精细的微观结构设计，是竹子在快速生长过程中积累生物质并同时构建高强度材料的关键策略。
2.2 中观结构：维管束分布与梯度密度特性
竹子强度优异的另一个关键因素在于其独特的中观结构，特别是维管束在径向的分布规律和由此产生的梯度密度特性。与木材均匀的组织结构不同，竹秆的横截面表现出从外层到内层显著变化的结构梯度，这种梯度设计是其高强度与轻量化完美结合的基础。
维管束的径向分布与频率：
竹秆的维管束由导管、筛管和周围的纤维鞘组成。这些维管束在竹秆的横截面上并非均匀分布，而是呈现出明显的梯度变化。通常，维管束在竹秆外层分布最为密集，向内层逐渐稀疏 25。一项对毛竹维管束形态转化的定量研究表明，较低节间的维管束比上部节间的维管束更靠近外侧，并且面积更大 26。另一项研究则指出，竹秆维管束的频率（单位面积内维管束的数量）和纤维组织比例从内层到外层逐渐增加 2527。例如，在Solid bamboo（一种实心竹）中，维管束频率平均为1.76 pcs/mm²，纤维组织比例平均为21.04%，两者均从内层向外层逐渐增加 27。这种外密内疏的维管束分布使得竹秆外层拥有更高的纤维含量，从而提供了更大的刚度和强度，以抵抗外部的弯曲和压缩载荷。
梯度密度特性与力学优化机制：
维管束分布的梯度直接导致了竹秆径向密度的梯度变化。竹秆通常表现出从外层到内层密度逐渐降低的趋势，即内层密度较低 28。这种梯度密度结构对于竹子的力学性能具有多重优化作用：
- 抗弯与抗压性能优化：高密度的外层富含高强度的纤维，能够有效抵抗拉伸和压缩应力，尤其是在竹秆承受弯曲载荷时，外层作为受力最大的区域，其高密度和高纤维含量能够提供强大的抗弯能力。而密度较低的内层则相对柔韧，有助于吸收能量，防止脆性断裂。这种外硬内软的结构使得竹秆在整体上既能保持高强度，又能具备一定的韧性。研究表明，维管束面积和密度与竹子的力学性能呈线性相关 25。
- 仿生学意义：竹子的这种梯度结构是一种典型的生物仿生设计。许多仿生研究都从竹子的这种梯度结构中汲取灵感，设计出具有优异力学性能的新型材料和结构。例如，受竹子梯度结构启发设计的仿生结构，在压缩测试中展现出更高的能量吸收效率和更优异的抗失效能力 29303132。有研究通过3D打印技术制造出受竹子启发的管状结构，并探讨了填充模式、填充比例、壁厚和内径对吸能性能的影响，结果发现网格和蜂窝状填充类型在特定填充比例下表现出优越性 32。此外，仿生内锥形吸能管的设计也证实了竹子内层锥形结构能够有效防止屈曲失效，降低初始峰值压溃载荷，并通过增加塑性变形来提高能量吸收效率 31。
- 功能分化与协同：这种梯度结构还体现了竹秆内部的功能分化。外层主要承担力学支撑功能，以抵抗风载等外部应力，而内层则更多地参与水分和养分的输导，并为生长提供必要的缓冲空间。维管束中的导管在水分和养分运输中发挥关键作用，毛竹的导管直径显著大于杨树和油茶果壳，且穿孔板倾角更小，这有利于提高水分传输效率 33。
维管束形态的转化：
维管束的形态本身也存在梯度变化。有研究利用深度学习模型定量分析了毛竹维管束的形态转化，发现较低节间的维管束面积更大，且长宽比和偏心率表明其形状更接近椭圆形，长轴沿径向分布 26。这种形态的优化可能进一步增强了维管束在外层提供结构支撑的能力。
综上所述，竹秆中维管束频率和纤维组织比例的径向梯度分布，形成了从外层到内层逐渐降低的密度梯度。这种精巧的中观结构设计赋予了竹子卓越的抗弯、抗压性能，并为仿生材料的设计提供了宝贵的启示，是其能够在快速生长的同时保持高强度的重要生物学基础。
2.3 宏观结构：管状形态与生长应力平衡
除了微观和中观层面的精巧设计，竹子在宏观尺度上的中空管状形态及其与内部生长应力的协同作用，是其实现高强度、轻量化并有效抵抗外部载荷的关键。这种宏观结构不仅在生物力学上具有显著优势，也为仿生工程设计提供了重要启示。
中空管状结构的力学效率：
竹秆最显著的宏观特征是其中空管状结构。这种结构在自然界中广泛存在，例如鸟类骨骼、植物茎秆等，其核心优势在于极高的“强度/重量比”（Strength-to-Weight Ratio）和“刚度/重量比”（Stiffness-to-Weight Ratio）。对于相同材料用量，管状结构比实心结构能提供更高的惯性矩，从而显著提高抗弯和抗扭转能力，而自身的重量却相对较轻 3435。
- 抗弯性能：中空管状结构将大部分材料分布在远离中性轴的外围，使得材料的利用效率最大化。在承受弯曲载荷时，外层材料承受的应力最大，而内层材料承受的应力较小。因此，移除内层材料形成中空结构，可以在不显著牺牲整体抗弯性能的前提下，大幅减轻结构重量。这使得竹子能够以相对较小的生物质投入，实现极高的抗弯刚度和强度，从而在风吹雨打中保持直立姿态。
- 抗压性能：尽管中空结构可能会引入局部屈曲的风险，但竹秆通过其分节的构造和节间处坚硬的隔膜（diaphragm）有效抑制了这一问题 36。节隔膜作为加强筋，增强了竹秆的整体稳定性，防止了在轴向压缩载荷下管壁的径向变形和失稳 36。
这种结构效率使得竹子能够快速生长并达到相当可观的高度，同时保持足够的机械稳定性，以抵抗重力、风力等外部环境载荷。与同等直径的实心圆柱相比，中空管状竹秆的强度和刚度均更高，且重量更轻，这对于快速生长并需要高效运输水分和养分的植物而言，具有重要的适应性优势。
生长应力与结构稳定性：
竹秆的力学性能不仅来源于其材料和几何结构，还与内部预应力或生长应力的存在密切相关。在竹子的生长过程中，特别是在快速伸长阶段，秆内部会产生纵向的拉伸应力，这被称为“生长应力”或“预应力”。
- 维持直立姿态：生长应力的存在有助于竹秆在生长过程中维持其细长结构的直立姿态。这些内应力可以抵消或减小由自身重力引起的弯曲应力，从而提高竹秆的整体稳定性。当竹秆受到外部弯曲载荷（如风载）时，生长应力能够帮助结构抵抗变形，并在载荷移除后迅速恢复原状。
- 抵抗风载：对于高耸的竹子而言，风载是其面临的主要外部挑战之一。生长应力与中空管状结构的协同作用，使得竹秆能够以更灵活和高效的方式抵抗风力。一方面，管状结构本身就具有良好的抗风性能；另一方面，内部的生长应力可以看作是一种天然的“预紧力”，增强了竹秆的整体抗弯能力，使其能够承受更大的风力而不断裂。
- 弯曲应变适应性：一些研究表明，竹子甚至表现出对弯曲应变的适应性。例如，弯曲的毛竹秆在其凸侧（受压侧）表现出3.9倍更高的生长应变，同时秆壁更厚，形成偏心椭圆形截面，可将内部应力降低高达8.8% 23。在细胞层面上，发育不全的纤维细胞壁形成“铰链状”界面，缓解了纤维中的应力集中，同时木质素含量显著增加（9%），微纤丝角度也明显增大（超过20°），这促进了纤维素骨架与基质在拉伸应力下的协同承载，增强了应力传递效率并减轻了重力引起的弯曲效应 23。这挑战了单子叶植物不能形成反应组织的传统观念，并对异质高性能仿生设计具有重要启示 23。
综上所述，竹子在宏观层面上的中空管状结构以及其内部的生长应力，共同构成了其卓越力学性能的又一层保障。中空管状结构提供了极高的强度-重量比和刚度-重量比，而生长应力则进一步增强了竹秆的稳定性、抗弯能力和对外部载荷的适应性。这种从宏观到微观的多级结构设计，是竹子在快速生长和复杂环境中保持高强度并得以繁衍的关键。
3. 竹材作为建材的力学性能与工程应用
竹子，作为一种快速生长的可再生资源，因其卓越的力学性能和环保特性，在全球范围内被日益视为传统建材的有力替代品。其独特的生物结构赋予了竹材高强度、高韧性、轻质的综合优势。本章将详细探讨竹材作为建材的基础力学性能，分析影响其性能的关键因素，并结合具体实验数据，阐明竹材在工程应用中的巨大潜力。
3.1 竹材的基础力学性能表征
竹材的力学性能是一系列复杂因素综合作用的结果，包括拉伸强度、压缩强度和弯曲强度等核心参数。这些性能不仅决定了竹材作为结构材料的适用性，也直接影响其在不同工程应用中的表现。
关键力学参数：
- 拉伸强度（Tensile Strength）：竹材的拉伸强度是其抵抗拉伸载荷的能力，在与纤维方向平行的轴向表现出极高的强度。例如，一些竹纤维的拉伸强度可以达到459-642 MPa，远高于许多传统木材 37。在复合材料中，竹纤维增强环氧树脂复合材料的拉伸强度可达227 ± 14 MPa至255 ± 18 MPa 38。
- 压缩强度（Compressive Strength）：竹材的抗压强度同样出色，尤其是在轴向。这得益于其细胞壁的厚化和维管束的致密排列。有研究显示，竹材的抗压强度在28.99 MPa左右 21。
- 弯曲强度（Flexural Strength）：弯曲强度衡量竹材抵抗弯曲变形和断裂的能力。竹材的独特中空管状结构使其在弯曲载荷下表现优异，特别是其高密度外层提供了强大的抗弯能力 34。一些去木质素化的致密竹材（densified bamboo）的弯曲强度和弹性模量可以比天然竹材提高一倍以上，展示了其作为高性能结构材料的潜力 3940。
影响竹材力学性能的因素：
竹材的力学性能并非一成不变，而是受多种因素影响，其中含水率、竹龄、竹材部位（竹青/竹黄）以及加工处理方式是重要的影响因子。
- 含水率（Moisture Content）：含水率对竹材的力学性能具有显著影响。通常，含水率过高或过低都会降低竹材的力学强度。适度的含水率能够保持竹纤维的韧性，但过多的水分会软化细胞壁，降低强度；而过于干燥则可能导致脆性增加。因此，在竹材作为建材使用前，通常需要进行干燥处理，将含水率控制在一定范围内。
- 竹龄（Age of Bamboo）：竹龄是影响竹材力学性能的关键因素之一。一般来说，2-3年生的竹材被认为是力学性能最佳的时期，此时竹材的细胞壁已充分成熟、木质化程度高，纤维素含量稳定，因此具有最高的强度和刚度 3841。例如，2年生的Injibara竹纤维增强聚丙烯复合材料在11月采伐时，拉伸强度可达125 ± 8 MPa，杨氏模量可达25 ± 0.72 GPa，均达到最佳水平 41。过老或过幼的竹材其力学性能相对较低。
- 部位（Part of Bamboo Culm）：竹秆不同部位的力学性能也存在差异。通常，竹秆的基部（底部）由于维管束密度高、纤维含量丰富，往往具有更高的密度和更强的力学性能。而上部或内部的竹材，由于纤维发育程度和密度较低，其强度和硬度可能稍逊一筹。例如，竹秆外层的密度高于内层，且维管束在外层更为密集，这使得外层竹材具有更高的强度 34。
- 采伐季节（Harvesting Season）：研究表明，采伐季节也会影响竹材的力学性能。例如，在埃塞俄比亚进行的研究发现，11月采伐的竹材及其复合材料的拉伸强度和杨氏模量通常高于2月采伐的竹材 3841。这可能与植物在不同季节的生理活动和营养物质积累有关。
- 处理方法（Treatment Methods）：对竹纤维进行化学处理，如氢氧化钠（NaOH）处理，可以去除部分半纤维素和木质素，增加纤维素相对含量，改善纤维表面粗糙度和与基体的润湿性，从而提升复合材料的力学性能 42。例如，6 wt.% NaOH溶液处理的竹纤维被认为是制备竹纤维复合材料的最佳选择 42。此外，其他处理方法如硅酸钠溶液处理，也能有效减轻竹纤维吸水后的力学性能下降，甚至提高杨氏模量 43。
工程适用性：
竹材优异的基础力学性能使其在工程领域具有广泛的适用性。例如：
- 竹纤维增强复合材料：通过将竹纤维作为增强材料，可以显著提升水泥基、石膏基或聚合物基复合材料的力学性能。在磷石膏基复合材料中，掺入1.0%含量、12 mm长的生竹纤维时，复合材料的抗压强度可达28.99 MPa，抗弯强度可达8.41 MPa，分别比对照组提高了123.73%和169.82% 21。这表明竹纤维能够有效改善磷石膏材料的低强度和韧性不足问题。
- 竹-水泥复合材料：作为水泥砂浆的增强填料，竹纤维也能有效提高其抗压和抗弯强度。例如，当掺入0.5 wt%的竹纤维时，水泥砂浆的抗压强度和抗弯强度分别提高了13.51%和7% 44。
- 结构件应用：高致密化的竹材，其抗弯强度和弹性模量远超天然竹材，使其能够用于制造高性能的结构部件，作为传统木材或复合材料的替代品 3940。
综上所述，竹材凭借其出色的拉伸、压缩和弯曲强度，以及通过优化竹龄、采伐季节和适当处理所能达到的更优性能，展现出作为可持续建材的巨大潜力。其在复合材料中的应用尤其突出，能够显著改善基体材料的力学缺陷，为土木工程和建筑领域提供了新的解决方案。
3.2 竹基复合材料的强化机制与应用案例
竹纤维因其高强度、高韧性、低密度以及可再生性等优势，成为增强水泥、石膏、聚合物等多种基体材料的理想选择，形成了性能优异的竹基复合材料。这些复合材料的强化机制主要体现在竹纤维与基体之间的有效界面结合以及纤维自身对裂纹扩展的抑制作用。
强化机制：
- 界面结合与荷载传递：竹纤维与水泥基材料的界面结合是决定复合材料力学性能的关键。在水泥水化过程中，产生的硅酸钙水合物（C-S-H凝胶）等水化产物能够黏附在竹纤维表面，形成紧密的界面区域。这种界面黏附作用使得荷载能够有效地从基体传递到高强度的竹纤维上，从而提升复合材料的整体强度和韧性。有研究表明，在竹纤维增强磷石膏基复合材料中，水化生成的C-S-H凝胶和硫铝酸钙（AFt）相在CaSO₄·2H₂O周围形成骨架支撑，同时大量水化产物黏附在生竹纤维表面，显著增强了纤维与基体之间的黏附力 21。此外，当使用回收骨料制备竹纤维增强再生骨料混凝土时，几乎没有观察到片状Ca(OH)₂晶体在竹纤维-硬化水泥浆体过渡区出现，这表明界面结合是有效的 45。
- 纤维的桥接作用：竹纤维在复合材料中扮演着“桥梁”的角色。当基体材料内部出现微裂纹时，竹纤维能够有效地跨越裂纹，阻止其进一步扩展，从而提高材料的断裂韧性和延展性。这种桥接作用通过纤维的拉拔、摩擦和断裂等机制耗散能量，避免了基体的脆性破坏。例如，竹纤维能够提高冷弯型钢-混凝土组合角柱的延展性，通过裂纹桥接和拉拔耗能机制，使柱的位移增加33.2% 46。
- 纤维长度与含量的优化：竹纤维的长度和含量是影响复合材料力学性能的重要参数。
应用案例：
- 竹纤维增强磷石膏复合材料（BFRPGCs）：磷石膏是一种工业废弃物，其直接利用存在强度低、韧性差的问题。通过掺入生竹纤维，可以显著改善磷石膏基胶凝材料的力学性能。当竹纤维长度为12 mm，掺量为1.0%时，BFRPGCs的抗压强度达到28.99 MPa，抗弯强度达到8.41 MPa，分别比对照组提高了123.73%和169.82% 21。这种材料为磷石膏的大宗高值化利用提供了新途径，可用于制造非承重墙体材料、保温板等。
- 竹纤维增强再生骨料混凝土：将天然竹纤维与破碎废弃混凝土制成的再生骨料相结合，可以制备竹纤维增强再生骨料混凝土。这种材料不仅促进了废弃物的资源化利用，还通过竹纤维的增强作用提高了混凝土的性能。研究结果显示，竹纤维增强试件在受压破坏时表现出良好的整体性，竹纤维有效地将混凝土连接在一起 45。优化后的参数为竹纤维长度20 mm，含量0.4v%，水灰比0.55 45。这种绿色环保的混凝土可应用于基础建设和结构工程中。
- 竹-木复合板材：受竹子精细有序的梯度结构和多级界面的启发，研究人员利用速生木材、废橡胶以及竹加工残余物制成的竹炭塑料片，通过层压技术制备出具有类似竹结构特征的层合复合材料 47。这种复合材料密度低（0.73 g/cm³），比模量达13.03 GPa cm/g，减振比6.61%，冲击韧性14.16 J/cm，显著优于桦木胶合板等用于高铁地板的木基复合材料 47。其优异的性能使其在环保铁路车厢地板等领域具有巨大的应用潜力。
- 超高性能混凝土（UHPC）中的应用：超高性能混凝土（UHPC）因其高强度特性适用于受压构件，但其脆性失效问题通常需要加入钢纤维解决。天然植物纤维（如竹纤维）作为钢纤维的替代品，具有成本效益高、环境友好等优点。研究表明，竹纤维增强的UHPC试件在受压荷载下未发生突然失效，表现出与钢纤维增强试件相当的失效后行为和损伤模式，并且在弯曲拉伸强度方面也表现出一定的裂纹后承载能力 48。这为UHPC的可持续发展提供了新的方向。
- 沥青混凝土路面改性：竹纤维也被用作沥青混凝土的改性剂，以提高路面的耐久性和抗疲劳、抗蠕变性能。研究表明，以总样品重量的0.3%掺入竹纤维，可以优化沥青混合料的马歇尔稳定度、间接拉伸强度和抗车辙能力 49。这有助于延长路面使用寿命，减少维护成本。
这些应用案例充分展示了竹基复合材料在建筑、交通等领域的巨大潜力，为实现建筑行业的绿色低碳转型提供了可行的解决方案。通过进一步优化竹纤维的处理工艺和复合材料的制备技术，竹基复合材料有望在未来发挥更重要的作用。
3.3 竹建材的耐久性与环境适应性
尽管竹材具有优异的力学性能和环保优势，但其天然存在的生物降解风险（如霉菌、腐朽菌侵蚀）和对环境因素（如湿热、紫外线）的敏感性，是限制其大规模作为结构建材应用的主要挑战。因此，提高竹材的耐久性是拓宽其应用范围的关键。通过物理、化学和生物处理等多种技术，可以有效改善竹材的防腐、抗老化性能，使其在复杂的外部环境下仍能保持长期稳定服役。
防腐与抗老化处理技术：
- 碳化处理（Carbonization）：碳化是一种高温热处理技术，通过在无氧或低氧条件下对竹材进行加热，改变其化学组成和微观结构。碳化处理能有效去除竹材中的半纤维素和部分纤维素，降低竹材的吸湿性，减少霉菌和腐朽菌的营养来源，从而提高其防腐和尺寸稳定性。研究表明，超高温蒸汽处理（Superheated Steam Treatment）作为一种碳化方法，可以显著提高竹纤维编织材的抗水性、抗紫外线老化性和抗腐朽性，并改善防霉性能，使其防腐等级达到I级，尽管同时伴随着力学性能的轻微下降 50。微波压缩处理结合不同含水率的竹材，也能通过木质素和半纤维素的重组，增强竹材的化学稳定性，提高抗水性和耐久性 51。此外，碳化还能赋予竹材深色调，增加其装饰性。
- 化学改性处理（Chemical Modification）：通过引入化学物质与竹材细胞壁组分发生反应，可以改变竹材的亲水性，提高其防腐性能。
- 生物基胶黏剂交联：使用生物基胶黏剂进行交联处理，如木质素浸渍，可以将环境友好的木质素生物聚合物引入木材细胞中，显著提高木材的尺寸稳定性和耐久性。例如，通过酶解木质素（EHL）浸渍处理，可使木材的抗溶胀效率高达99.4%，吸湿性降低至0.55%，褐腐病后质量损失降至7.22%，并能增强细胞壁的弹性与硬度 52。类似的技术也可应用于竹材，通过改善纤维素与木质素的界面作用，提高竹材的耐久性。
- 表面处理：对竹纤维进行表面改性，如甘油、铝酸酯或硅烷处理，可以改善竹纤维与水泥基体的界面黏附性，并增强复合材料的耐久性。例如，铝酸酯处理在不渗透性、氯离子抵抗性、冻融抵抗性和碳化方面表现出最佳效果 53。这种处理通过在纤维表面形成疏水层或反应性基团，降低水分吸收，从而提高复合材料的长期性能。
- 塑化处理（Plastination）：塑化技术通过用聚合物替代竹纤维中的水分和脂肪，可以有效降低竹纤维的吸湿性，同时提高其拉伸强度和刚度，从而增强竹纤维的环境耐久性，使其更适用于户外应用 54。
- 阻燃处理：在竹材中引入阻燃剂，如磷酸盐或氮系化合物，可以提高其耐火性能，满足建筑材料的防火要求。
- 防霉防虫处理：通过浸渍、涂刷等方式，将生物杀菌剂或驱虫剂施加到竹材表面或内部，以防止霉菌生长和虫害侵蚀。例如，木醋液（wood vinegar），特别是竹子来源的木醋液，具有显著的抗菌活性，可用于抑制常见细菌（如金黄色葡萄球菌、大肠杆菌）和真菌（如白色念珠菌）的生长，为竹材提供天然的防腐保护 55。
耐久性评估与实际应用案例：
竹建材的耐久性评估通常涉及模拟加速老化实验，如湿热循环、紫外线辐射、浸水、土埋等，以预测其在实际服役环境下的长期性能。
- 湿热循环老化：研究表明，经过10周的加速湿热循环老化（如20°C 98% RH – 30°C 64% RH – 40°C 30% RH），工程竹材的化学聚合物基质会发生降解，导致纤维素结晶度下降，轴向抗压强度和断裂模量降低，但变形和延展性会有所改善 56。这提示我们在设计竹结构时需充分考虑湿热环境对力学性能的影响，并采取相应的防护措施。
- 竹水泥板（Bamboo Cement Board）：竹水泥板是一种常见的竹基复合材料，常用于非承重墙体、隔断和天花板。通过优化竹纤维的预处理和板材的制造工艺，可以显著提高竹水泥板的耐水性、抗冻融性和抗生物侵蚀能力。例如，在轻质泡沫砂浆中掺入竹秆灰（BSA）作为水泥替代品，可以提高28天抗压强度（15% BSA替代时提高7%），并改善孔结构和增强基体内的界面结合，从而提升材料的力学和热性能 57。这种材料的吸水率虽然略有增加，但仍处于轻质建筑应用的合理范围内，表明其具有良好的耐久潜力。
- 竹结构建筑：现代竹结构建筑越来越多地采用工程竹材，如竹胶合板、重组竹等，并通过防腐、防潮、防虫处理来延长使用寿命。例如，一些创新的建筑材料，如具有分级形态的木质纤维素恒温器，通过封装无机相变材料，不仅具有高抗压强度（约20.3 MPa），还在恶劣条件下表现出高环境耐久性，并能有效管理热量，甚至在1300°C下仍能保持高防火性能 58。这种通过分子工程实现的复合材料，为竹材在苛刻环境下的应用提供了新的解决方案。
- 长期服役数据：尽管竹材大规模结构应用的历史相对较短，但一些传统竹结构建筑和现代工程竹材应用项目已提供了宝贵的长期服役数据。例如，通过物理改性（如热处理、致密化）和化学改性（如有机硅、聚合物浸渍）可以改善竹纤维增强聚合物复合材料的耐久性，使其在水浸、湿热循环、紫外线辐射和土壤埋藏等多种老化条件下保持性能稳定 59。这些经验和数据为进一步优化竹建材的耐久性设计和施工规范提供了基础。
大规模应用的重要性：
竹建材的耐久性直接关系到其在建筑领域的大规模推广和可持续发展。只有解决了耐久性问题，竹材才能真正替代传统高能耗、高碳排放的建材，并在气候变化背景下发挥其固碳减排的生态价值。未来的研究需要进一步探索更高效、环保、经济的竹材耐久性处理技术，并建立完善的耐久性评估标准和设计规范，以确保竹建材在各种环境下都能安全、可靠、长期地服务于人类社会。
4. 竹子作为建材的可持续性与生态价值
在全球气候变化日益严峻的背景下，建筑行业作为主要的碳排放源之一，正面临着巨大的减排压力。竹子，这种快速生长、可再生的天然材料，以其独特的碳汇能力和低碳优势，为建筑行业的绿色转型提供了极具前景的解决方案。将其作为建材的利用不仅能够有效储存碳，还能显著减少与传统建材相关的碳排放，展现出巨大的可持续性和生态价值。
4.1 竹材的碳汇与低碳优势
竹子在全球碳循环中扮演着关键角色，其卓越的碳吸收能力和在建材中的固碳潜力使其成为应对气候变化的重要工具。与传统高碳排放建材相比，竹材的全生命周期碳足迹显著降低，为实现碳中和目标提供了可行的路径。
竹子的碳吸收能力：
竹子以其惊人的生长速度而闻名，这直接转化为其高效的碳吸收能力。研究表明，毛竹林在生长周期内具有极强的碳吸收能力，是重要的碳汇。
- 快速固碳：竹子在生长过程中通过光合作用从大气中吸收大量的二氧化碳，并将其固定在生物量（竹秆、根茎、叶片）和土壤中。例如，中国的毛竹林碳储量估计约为611.15 ± 142.31 Tg C，其中75%储存在60 cm深的土壤中，22%储存在毛竹生物量中，3%储存在地表层（如竹枯落物、灌木和草本层） 60。到2018年，中国竹产业的竹植被碳储量达到448.30 Tg C，土壤碳储量为396.75 Tg C，地表层碳储量为11.20 Tg C 61。
- 高生产力：竹子每年的生物量生产力远高于大多数乔木树种，这意味着它能在更短的时间内吸收更多的碳。这种高生产力使得竹林能够持续不断地从大气中移除碳。
- 竹龄对碳储量的影响：竹林的碳储量与竹龄密切相关。例如，毛竹的净光合速率在幼竹时期最高，其次是成熟竹，最后是老竹 62。虽然幼竹的碳吸收效率高，但不同竹龄对碳固存的总量和分布有复杂影响。合理采伐和管理老竹（如在老竹碳流失加剧时及时砍伐），可以优化竹林的整体碳汇功能 62。
- 微生物在碳固存中的作用：土壤微生物在竹林碳固存中也发挥着重要作用。在退化的毛竹林中，土壤有机碳（SOC）、水溶性碳（WSOC）和微生物碳（MBC）的含量会随着退化时间的延长而增加。然而，微生物残余物对SOC的贡献比例会降低，这可能预示着微生物活性的长期下降 63。因此，通过适当的土壤管理措施，可以进一步增强竹林土壤的碳储存能力 64。
与传统建材的碳排放对比：
传统建材如水泥和钢材的生产过程是高能耗、高碳排放的。相比之下，竹建材在全生命周期内具有显著的低碳优势。
- 水泥：水泥生产过程中，熟料煅烧是主要的碳排放环节，释放出大量的CO₂。每生产一吨水泥大约会排放0.8至1吨的CO₂。
- 钢材：钢铁生产同样是能源密集型产业，焦炭和铁矿石的还原过程也会产生巨额碳排放。
- 竹材的碳储存优势：研究显示，竹建材的碳储存量和减排潜力远超传统建材。每吨竹组装构件的碳储存量比木材高出约140公斤 65。与其他建材（如尺寸木材、工程木材、水泥、钢材、木材、麻筋混凝土）相比，竹建材具有最高的碳排放量和碳储存量，这意味着其固碳能力和替代传统建材的减排潜力是最大的 65。
- 生命周期评估（LCA）：生命周期评估（LCA）研究一致表明，竹产品通常比相应的基准材料（如钢、混凝土、塑料）具有更低的全球变暖潜能值（GWP） 6667。例如，竹基建筑材料可以将碳足迹减少46.2%至87.6%，显著优于传统建筑材料 67。中国竹产业的碳储存量在1993年至2018年间稳步增长，到2018年竹产品碳储存量达到55.33 Tg C 61。
竹建材全生命周期的碳储存与减排潜力：
竹建材的低碳优势体现在其全生命周期的各个阶段：
- 种植阶段（Planting Phase）：这是竹子碳吸收的主要阶段。竹林通过光合作用吸收大气中的CO₂，并将其生物量和土壤中固存。这一阶段贡献了最大的碳汇 65。
- 加工阶段（Production Phase）：竹材的加工过程会产生碳排放，但相对于传统建材而言，其碳排放量较低。在竹材加工阶段，电力消耗是全球变暖潜能值（GWP）的主要贡献者 66。特定的加工过程，如碳化，被认为是碳排放最高的环节，其次是防霉、防腐和干燥处理以及胶合剂的应用 65。然而，通过优化生产工艺和使用可再生能源，可以进一步降低这一阶段的碳足迹。
- 使用阶段（Use Phase）：竹建材在使用寿命内能够持续储存碳。建筑物中的竹构件在生命周期内将碳封存其中，从而避免了这些碳重新释放到大气中。中国采伐木材/竹产品（HWP/HBP）中的碳储量在2020年达到了458.4 Tg C，其中竹产品的碳储量占比从2010年的20%增加到2020年的28%，凸显了竹产品在碳汇中的重要性 68。
- 报废处理与循环利用（End-of-Life & Recycling）：竹材在报废后可以进行循环利用，如生产竹基复合材料、生物能源或堆肥，从而延长碳的储存时间，或通过替代化石燃料实现减排。
综上所述，竹子作为建材在碳汇和低碳方面具有显著优势。其快速生长和高效固碳能力使其成为应对气候变化的天然解决方案。通过采用竹建材，不仅能有效储存碳，还能大幅减少建筑行业的碳排放，为实现全球可持续发展目标贡献重要力量。
4.2 竹资源利用的生态与经济协同性
竹材的快速生长特性不仅赋予其强大的固碳能力和低碳优势，更使其在生态保护和经济发展之间建立了独特的协同关系，尤其是在替代森林资源、推动乡村经济和促进可持续建筑发展方面，竹子都扮演着不可或缺的角色。
竹材的快速再生特性与森林保护的替代作用：
竹子是一种典型的速生植物，其生长周期远短于大多数乔木树种。例如，毛竹一般在3-5年内即可成熟并达到采伐标准，而硬木树种的生长周期通常需要数十年甚至上百年。这种快速的生长和再生能力使得竹子成为一种可持续的替代性资源，可以有效缓解对传统森林资源的砍伐压力，从而促进森林生态系统的保护和恢复。
- 缓解森林砍伐压力：随着全球人口增长和经济发展，对木材的需求日益增加，导致森林面积不断缩减。竹材作为结构材料和非结构材料的广泛应用，可以直接替代部分木材，减少对原始森林的采伐。例如，竹制地板、家具、板材和建筑构件等，都可以作为传统木制品的环保替代品。
- 生态恢复与水土保持：竹林具有发达的地下根系，能有效固持土壤，防止水土流失。在生态脆弱区域或退化土地上种植竹林，有助于恢复植被覆盖，改善土壤结构，并为野生动物提供栖息地。中国政府已将竹林管理纳入其生态保护红线（Ecological Conservation Redline, ECR）政策，以平衡生态保护和经济发展。例如，在安吉县，ECR区域内的竹产业发展并未对土地和经济发展造成不利影响，反而促进了土地利用空间格局的优化 69。
- 生物多样性保护：尽管竹子在某些地区可能存在过度扩张的生态问题 70，但合理的竹林管理和利用可以与生物多样性保护相结合。例如，大熊猫的生存严重依赖竹林，竹子不仅是它们的主要食物来源，也是其栖息地的重要组成部分 7172。因此，发展竹产业，特别是通过可持续的竹林管理，可以为大熊猫等濒危物种提供稳定的食物来源和栖息地，实现经济发展与生态保护的共赢。
竹产业在乡村经济与就业中的贡献：
竹产业的发展对乡村地区的经济繁荣和就业机会的创造具有显著的推动作用。竹子在全球范围内的分布广泛，特别是在发展中国家，竹产业已成为许多农村社区的重要经济支柱。
- 促进经济增长：竹子及其制品具有广泛的市场需求，包括建材、家具和工艺品等 7374。竹产业的发展能够带动相关产业链的形成，从竹材种植、采伐、初级加工到深加工和产品销售，形成完整的价值链，为乡村地区带来可观的经济收益。例如，在安徽、浙江等地，竹产业已成为当地重要的支柱产业，极大地促进了乡村经济发展。
- 创造就业机会：竹产业是劳动密集型产业，从竹林的培育、管理、采伐，到竹材的运输、加工、制品生产，都需要大量劳动力。这为农村居民提供了丰富的就业机会，有助于增加农民收入，减少农村贫困。例如，在一些竹资源丰富的国家和地区，竹产业已成为重要的创汇产业，为当地居民提供了稳定的生计来源。
- 创新与转型：现代竹产业正在向高附加值、高科技方向发展，例如，利用竹材生产工程竹材、竹基复合材料以及生物质能源等。这种产业升级不仅提高了竹产品的市场竞争力，也为乡村地区带来了新的发展机遇。中国在竹林碳汇市场和绿色金融方面的创新实践，例如通过碳信用和优惠贷款整合大规模专业森林管理和下游竹产业发展，为全球南方国家实现竹资源的气候变化减缓、环境保护和地方生计改善提供了宝贵的经验 75。
- 文化传承与旅游发展：竹子在中国等东方文化中具有深厚的文化内涵，竹编、竹雕等传统工艺是重要的非物质文化遗产 74。竹产业的发展有助于传承和弘扬这些传统文化，同时也可以结合生态旅游和文化体验，发展乡村旅游，进一步促进地方经济的多元化发展。
在可持续建筑发展中的战略地位：
鉴于竹材卓越的力学性能、快速的生长周期、强大的碳汇能力以及对乡村经济的推动作用，它在可持续建筑发展中占据着重要的战略地位。
- 环境友好型建材：竹材作为一种天然、可再生、可生物降解的材料，其生产过程能耗低、污染少，符合绿色建筑和低碳建筑的要求。一些建筑规范正在逐步完善，以促进非工业建筑材料如竹子在可持续建筑中的应用 76。
- 适应气候变化：竹建材的应用有助于减少建筑行业的碳足迹，实现碳中和目标。其在建筑结构中的固碳作用，使得建筑物本身成为一个“碳库”，为应对气候变化提供了被动式的解决方案。
- 经济效益与社会效益：竹建材的推广使用不仅具有环境效益，也具有显著的经济和社会效益。它为发展中国家提供了一种经济可行且技术可及的建材选择，有助于推动当地经济发展，改善民生。
综上所述，竹材的快速再生特性使其成为缓解森林资源压力、保护生态环境的有效途径。同时，竹产业的发展能够有效推动乡村经济增长、创造就业机会，并在文化传承和旅游发展中发挥作用。因此，竹子在可持续建筑发展中具有重要的战略地位，其生态与经济的协同价值将为未来社会的可持续发展贡献巨大力量。
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参考文献
1Expression and function analysis of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase genes involved in Bamboo lignin biosynthesis.PubMed
Huayu Sun, Hui Li, Mei Huang, et al.
Physiol Plant. 2024 Jul-Aug;176(4):e14444. doi: 10.1111/ppl.14444.
Bamboo, renowned as the fastest-growing plant globally, matures within an astonishingly short period of 40-50 days from shoots, reaching heights of 10-20 meters. Moreover, it can be harvested for various uses within 3-5 years. Bamboo exhibits exceptional mechanical properties, characterized by high hardness and flexibility, largely attributed to its lignin content. Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) catalyzes the crucial initial step in lignin biosynthesis, but its precise role in bamboo lignification processes remains elusive. Thus, elucidating the functions of PAL genes in bamboo lignification processes is imperative for understanding its rapid growth and mechanical strength. Here, we systematically identified and classified PAL genes in Moso bamboo, ensuring nomenclature consistency across prior studies. Subsequently, we evaluated PAL gene expression profiles using publicly available transcriptome data. The downregulation of PePALs expression in Moso bamboo through in planta gene editing resulted in a decrease in PAL activity and a subsequent reduction in lignin content. In contrast, overexpression of PePAL led to enhanced PAL activity and an increase in lignin content. These findings highlight the critical role of PAL in the lignin biosynthesis process of Moso bamboo, which will help to unravel the mechanism underpinning bamboo's rapid growth and mechanical strength, with a specific emphasis on elucidating the functions of PAL genes.
2Unveiling the mechanisms of Moso bamboo's motor function and internal growth stress.PubMed
Yu Luan, Yuting Yang, Menghong Jiang, et al.
New Phytol. 2024 Sep;243(6):2201-2213. doi: 10.1111/nph.19913. Epub 2024 Jun 17.
Bamboo, a renewable resource with rapid growth and an impressive height-to-diameter ratio, faces mechanical instability due to its slender structure. Despite this, bamboo maintains its posture without breaking in its battle against environmental and gravitational forces. But what drives this motor function in bamboo? This study subjected Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) to gravitational stimulation, compelling it to grow at a 45° angle instead of upright. Remarkably, the artificially inclined bamboo exhibited astonishing shape control and adjustment capabilities. The growth strain was detected at both macroscopic and microscopic levels, providing evidence for the presence of internal stress, namely growth stress. The high longitudinal tensile stress on the upper side, along with a significant asymmetry in stress distribution in tilted bamboo, plays a pivotal role in maintaining its mechanical stability. Drawing upon experimental findings, it can be deduced that the growth stress primarily originates from the broad layers of fiber cells. Bamboo could potentially regulate the magnitude of growth stress by modifying the number of fiber cell layers during its maturation process. Additionally, the microfibril angle and lignin disposition may decisively influence the generation of growth stress.
3How slender bamboo reacts to gravitational and external mechanical stimuli: Responses and mechanisms.PubMed
Yu Luan, Yichen Yang, Menghong Jiang, et al.
Plant Physiol. 2025 Sep 30;199(2). doi: 10.1093/plphys/kiaf488.
Bamboo is renowned for its rapid growth rate and striking slenderness. Despite the challenges to mechanical stability posed by its slender structure, bamboo demonstrates an exceptional ability to resist external forces. How does it accomplish this? In this study, we focused on upright plants of Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis), as well as those that were bending naturally or inclined artificially, exploring their responses to gravitational and mechanical stimuli. Artificially inclined bamboo showed remarkable control and reorientation of posture through the independent sensing of local angles at each internode. Strain gauge tests revealed that bamboo possesses growth stress, forming an intrinsic support system. Upright bamboo (UB) plants displayed longitudinal tensile stresses, enhancing their stability amidst disturbances. Non-UB plants exhibited a pronounced asymmetrical stress distribution, with higher tensile stress on one side, which is crucial for maintaining a slanted posture. We detected variability in stress on the opposite side, ranging from low-level tensile stress to compressive stress, demonstrating bamboo's dynamic response to stimuli. Moreover, growth stress was detected at the cellular level, providing a foundation for investigating the origin and generation of growth stress in bamboo. Multiscale studies revealed adaptations across the macroscopic appearance, microscopic structure, and physiological functions of bamboo in response to gravitational and external mechanical stimuli, which are closely linked to mechanical responses, thereby ensuring efficient growth and stability.
4Suitability of bamboo to the ecological conditions in Ba Be district, Bac Kan province, Vietnam.PubMed
Van Thanh Do, Van Hoan Kieu, Quyet Chien Nguyen, et al.
Heliyon. 2023 Nov 18;9(11):e22450. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e22450. eCollection 2023 Nov.
In Vietnamese culture, bamboo holds deep symbolic significance. However, in recent years, as a result of evolving usage patterns and the introduction of alternative materials in the face of a rapidly developing modern market economy, industrialisation, and urbanisation, bamboo's economic and social value has dwindled. Nevertheless, with the pressing challenges of climate change, environmental pollution, and the depletion of natural resources, bamboo is experiencing a resurgence in importance within the lives of Vietnamese people. Ba Be district, situated in Bac Kan province, stands as one of the country's most impoverished regions. Natural bamboo thrives in 14 out of 15 communes, with Dong Phuc commune being the exception. Planted bamboo is found in 14 out of 15 communes, excluding Cho Ra town, covering approximately 7.9 % of the entire district's natural area (NA). The district's vast terrain, featuring slopes exceeding 15°, presents formidable obstacles to socio-economic development. This study aims to shed light on the distribution of bamboo forests in Ba Be district and presents an assessment of bamboo's suitability within its natural surroundings. The study employs the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) method and spatial statistics, using remote sensing data supplied by the Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Ba Be district. The results demonstrate that 60 % of Ba Be district's NA is conducive to bamboo cultivation and growth. The findings of this research provide local authorities with a scientifically grounded basis for strategic planning, enabling bamboo to emerge as a pivotal resource within production forests. This approach outlines the ideal spatial distribution for bamboo cultivation and development, ultimately fostering the sustainable utilisation of local natural resources to support both immediate and long-term local socio-economic development.
5Application of Bamboo Plants in Nine Aspects.PubMed
Abolghassem Emamverdian, Yulong Ding, Fatemeh Ranaei, et al.
ScientificWorldJournal. 2020 Sep 30;2020:7284203. doi: 10.1155/2020/7284203. eCollection 2020.
Bamboo forests are undoubtedly one of the most abundant nontimber plants on Earth and cover a wide area of tropical and subtropical regions around the world. This amazing plant has unique rapid growth and can play an important role in protecting our planet from pollution and improving the soil. Bamboo can be used as a biofuel, food, and for architecture and construction applications and plays a large role in the local economy by creating job opportunities. The aim of this paper is to review the extraordinary tropical plant bamboo by explaining the mechanisms related to the growth and strength of bamboo and identifying ways to utilize bamboo in industry, employment, climate change mitigation, and soil erosion reduction.
6Rapid growth of Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis): Cellular roadmaps, transcriptome dynamics, and environmental factors.PubMed
Ming Chen, Lin Guo, Muthusamy Ramakrishnan, et al.
Plant Cell. 2022 Sep 27;34(10):3577-3610. doi: 10.1093/plcell/koac193.
Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) shows remarkably rapid growth (114.5 cm/day), but the underlying biological mechanisms remain unclear. After examining more than 12,750 internodes from more than 510 culms from 17 Moso populations, we identified internode 18 as a representative internode for rapid growth. This internode includes a 2-cm cell division zone (DZ), a cell elongation zone up to 12 cm, and a secondary cell wall (SCW) thickening zone. These zones elongated 11.8 cm, produced approximately 570,000,000 cells, and deposited ∼28 mg g-1 dry weight (DW) lignin and ∼44 mg g-1 DW cellulose daily, far exceeding vegetative growth observed in other plants. We used anatomical, mathematical, physiological, and genomic data to characterize development and transcriptional networks during rapid growth in internode 18. Our results suggest that (1) gibberellin may directly trigger the rapid growth of Moso shoots, (2) decreased cytokinin and increased auxin accumulation may trigger cell DZ elongation, and (3) abscisic acid and mechanical pressure may stimulate rapid SCW thickening via MYB83L. We conclude that internode length involves a possible tradeoff mediated by mechanical pressure caused by rapid growth, possibly influenced by environmental temperature and regulated by genes related to cell division and elongation. Our results provide insight into the rapid growth of Moso bamboo.
7Characterization of the developmental dynamics of the elongation of a bamboo internode during the fast growth stage.PubMed
Qiang Wei, Lin Guo, Chen Jiao, et al.
Tree Physiol. 2019 Jul 18;39(7):1201-1214. doi: 10.1093/treephys/tpz063.
Previous studies on the fast growth of bamboo shoots mainly focused on the entire culm. No work about the fast elongation of a single internode, which is the basic unit for the fast growth of bamboo shoots, has been reported so far according to our knowledge. In this study, we have systematically investigated the regulating mechanisms underlying the fast growth of a single bamboo internode of Bambusa multiplex (Lour.) Raeusch. ex Schult. We discovered that the growth of the internode displays a logistic pattern, and the two sections located in the bottom of the internode, one for cell division and, another for cell elongation, each with an ~1-cm length, comprise the effective zones for the internode growth. RNA-Seq analysis identified a number of genes potentially involved in regulating the fast growth of bamboo internode such as those that have positive roles in promoting cell growth or division, which were dramatically down-regulated in the internode at fast growth decreasing stage. Further analysis revealed that sugar plays an important role in promoting the fast growth of bamboo internodes through inhibition of BmSnf1. Mechanical stress is found to be involved in the triggering of the internode growth decrease through activation of the generation of reactive oxygen species by upregulating Calmodulins. These results provide systematic insight into the biological mechanisms underlying the fast growth of bamboo shoots based on the behavior of a single internode.
8Cellular and molecular characterizations of the irregular internode division zone formation of a slow-growing bamboo variant.PubMed
Zhipeng Gao, Lin Guo, Muthusamy Ramakrishnan, et al.
Tree Physiol. 2022 Mar 9;42(3):570-584. doi: 10.1093/treephys/tpab129.
The key molecular mechanisms underlying the sectionalized growth within bamboo or other grass internodes remain largely unknown. Here, we genetically and morphologically compared the culm and rhizome internode division zones (DZs) of a slow-growing bamboo variant (sgv) having dwarf internodes, with those of the corresponding wild type (WT). Histological analysis discovers that the sgv has an irregular internode DZ. However, the shoot apical meristems in height, width, outside shape, cell number and cell width of the sgv and the WT were all similar. The DZ irregularities first appeared post apical meristem development, in 1-mm sgv rhizome internodes. Thus, the sgv is a DZ irregularity bamboo variant, which has been first reported in bamboo according to our investigation. Transcriptome sequencing analysis finds that a number of cell wall biogenesis and cell division-related genes are dramatically downregulated in the sgv DZ. Interestingly, both transcriptomic and brassinosteroid (BR) contents detection, as well as quantitative real-time PCR analyses show that these irregularities have resulted from the BR signaling pathway defects. Brassinosteroid defect might also cause the erect leaves and branches as well as the irregular epidermis of the sgv. These results suggest that BR signaling pathway plays critical roles in bamboo internode DZ and leaf development from a mutant perspective and also explain the upstream mechanisms causing the dwarf internode of the sgv bamboo.
9Spatiotemporal transcriptome atlas reveals gene regulatory patterns during the organogenesis of the rapid growing bamboo shoots.PubMed
Jing Guo, Dan Luo, Yamao Chen, et al.
New Phytol. 2024 Nov;244(3):1057-1073. doi: 10.1111/nph.20059. Epub 2024 Aug 14.
Bamboo with its remarkable growth rate and economic significance, offers an ideal system to investigate the molecular basis of organogenesis in rapidly growing plants, particular in monocots, where gene regulatory networks governing the maintenance and differentiation of shoot apical and intercalary meristems remain a subject of controversy. We employed both spatial and single-nucleus transcriptome sequencing on 10× platform to precisely dissect the gene functions in various tissues and early developmental stages of bamboo shoots. Our comprehensive analysis reveals distinct cell trajectories during shoot development, uncovering critical genes and pathways involved in procambium differentiation, intercalary meristem formation, and vascular tissue development. Spatial and temporal expression patterns of key regulatory genes, particularly those related to hormone signaling and lipid metabolism, strongly support the hypothesis that intercalary meristem origin from surrounded parenchyma cells. Specific gene expressions in intercalary meristem exhibit regular and dispersed distribution pattern, offering clues for understanding the intricate molecular mechanisms that drive the rapid growth of bamboo shoots. The single-nucleus and spatial transcriptome analysis reveal a comprehensive landscape of gene activity, enhancing the understanding of the molecular architecture of organogenesis and providing valuable resources for future genomic and genetic studies relying on identities of specific cell types.
10Transcriptome characterization of moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) seedlings in response to exogenous gibberellin applications.PubMed
Hangxiao Zhang, Huihui Wang, Qiang Zhu, et al.
BMC Plant Biol. 2018 Jun 20;18(1):125. doi: 10.1186/s12870-018-1336-z.
BACKGROUND: Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) is a well-known bamboo species of high economic value in the textile industry due to its rapid growth. Phytohormones, which are master regulators of growth and development, serve as important endogenous signals. However, the mechanisms through which phytohormones regulate growth in moso bamboo remain unknown to date. RESULTS: Here, we reported that exogenous gibberellins (GA) applications resulted in a significantly increased internode length and lignin condensation. Transcriptome sequencing revealed that photosynthesis-related genes were enriched in the GA-repressed gene class, which was consistent with the decrease in leaf chlorophyll concentrations and the lower rate of photosynthesis following GA treatment. Exogenous GA applications on seedlings are relatively easy to perform, thus we used 4-week-old whole seedlings of bamboo for GA- treatment followed by high throughput sequencing. In this study, we identified 932 cis-nature antisense transcripts (cis-NATs), and 22,196 alternative splicing (AS) events in total. Among them, 42 cis-nature antisense transcripts (cis-NATs) and 442 AS events were differentially expressed upon exposure to exogenous GA, suggesting that post-transcriptional regulation might be also involved in the GA response. Targets of differential expression of cis-NATs included genes involved in hormone receptor, photosynthesis and cell wall biogenesis. For example, LAC4 and its corresponding cis-NATs were GA-induced, and may be involved in the accumulation of lignin, thus affecting cell wall composition. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides novel insights illustrating how GA alters post-transcriptional regulation and will shed light on the underlying mechanism of growth modulated by GA in moso bamboo.
11Physiological and transcriptomic analyses of brassinosteroid function in moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) seedlings.PubMed
Zhe Zhang, Xuelian Yang, Ling Cheng, et al.
Planta. 2020 Jul 25;252(2):27. doi: 10.1007/s00425-020-03432-z.
This study demonstrates that brassinosteroid is essential for seedling and shoot growth in moso bamboo. The shoot of moso bamboo is known to grow extremely fast. The roles of phytohormones in such fast growth of bamboo shoot remain unclear. Here we reported that endogenous brassinosteroid (BR) is a major factor promoting bamboo shoot internode elongation. Reducing endogenous brassinosteroid level by its biosynthesis inhibitor propiconazole stunted shoot growth in seedling stage, whereas exogenous BR application promoted scale leaf elongation and the inclination of lamina joint of leaves and scale leaves. Genome-wide transcriptome analysis identified hundreds of genes whose expression levels are altered by BR and propiconazole in shoots and roots of bamboo seedling. The data show that BR regulates cell wall-related genes, hydrogen peroxide catabolic genes, and auxin-related genes. Our study demonstrates an essential role of BR in fast growth bamboo shoots and identifies a large number of BR-responsive genes in bamboo seedlings.
12Brassinosteroids and metalloids: Regulation of plant biology.PubMed
Anket Sharma, Muthusamy Ramakrishnan, Kanika Khanna, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2022 Feb 15;424(Pt C):127518. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127518. Epub 2021 Oct 20.
Metalloid contamination in the environment is one of the serious concerns posing threat to our ecosystems. Excess of metalloid concentrations (including antimony, arsenic, boron, selenium etc.) in soil results in their over accumulation in plant tissues, which ultimately causes phytotoxicity and their bio-magnification. So, it is very important to find some ecofriendly approaches to counter negative impacts of above mentioned metalloids on plant system. Brassinosteroids (BRs) belong to family of plant steroidal hormones, and are considered as one of the ecofriendly way to counter metalloid phytotoxicity. This phytohormone regulates the plant biology in presence of metalloids by modulating various key biological processes like cell signaling, primary and secondary metabolism, bio-molecule crosstalk and redox homeostasis. The present review explains the in-depth mechanisms of BR regulated plant responses in presence of metalloids, and provides some biotechnological aspects towards ecofriendly management of metalloid contamination.
13Cellular differentiation, hormonal gradient, and molecular alternation between the division zone and the elongation zone of bamboo internodes.PubMed
Lin Guo, Chunyue Wang, Jin Chen, et al.
Physiol Plant. 2022 Sep;174(5):e13774. doi: 10.1111/ppl.13774.
Bamboo differentiates a cell division zone (DZ) and a cell elongation zone (EZ) to promote internode elongation during rapid growth. However, the biological mechanisms underlying this sectioned growth behavior are still unknown. Using histological, physiological, and genomic data, we found that the cell wall and other subcellular organelles such as chloroplasts are more developed in the EZ. Abundant hydrogen peroxide accumulated in the pith cells of the EZ, and stomata formed completely in the EZ. In contrast, most cells in the DZ were in an undifferentiated state with wrinkled cell walls and dense cytoplasm. Hormone detection revealed that the levels of gibberellin, auxin, cytokinin, and brassinosteroid were higher in the DZ than in the EZ. However, the levels of salicylic acid and jasmonic acid were higher in the EZ than in the DZ. Transcriptome analysis with qRT-PCR quantification revealed that the transcripts for cell division and primary metabolism had higher expression in the DZ, whereas the genes for photosynthesis, cell wall growth, and secondary metabolism were dramatically upregulated in the EZ. Overexpression of a MYB transcription factor, BmMYB83, promotes cell wall lignification in transgenic plants. BmMYB83 is specifically expressed in cells that may have lignin deposits, such as protoxylem vessels and fiber cells. Our results indicate that hormone gradient and transcriptome reprogramming, as well as specific expression of key genes such as BmMYB83, may lead to differentiation of cell growth in the bamboo internode.
14MicroRNAs play important roles in regulating the rapid growth of the Phyllostachys edulis culm internode.PubMed
Kai-Li Wang, Yuanyuan Zhang, Heng-Mu Zhang, et al.
New Phytol. 2021 Sep;231(6):2215-2230. doi: 10.1111/nph.17542. Epub 2021 Jul 7.
Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) is a fast-growing species with uneven growth and lignification from lower to upper segments within one internode. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play a vital role in post-transcriptional regulation in plants. However, how miRNAs regulate fast growth in bamboo internodes is poorly understood. In this study, one moso bamboo internode was divided during early rapid growth into four segments called F4 (bottom) to F1 (upper) and these were then analysed for transcriptomes, miRNAs and degradomes. The F4 segment had a higher number of actively dividing cells as well as a higher content of auxin (IAA), cytokinin (CK) and gibberellin (GA) compared with the F1 segment. RNA-seq analysis showed DNA replication and cell division-associated genes highly expressed in F4 rather than in F1. In total, 63 miRNAs (DEMs) were identified as differentially expressed between F4 and F1. The degradome and the transcriptome indicated that many downstream transcription factors and hormonal responses genes were modulated by DEMs. Several miR-target interactions were further validated by tobacco co-infiltration. Our findings give new insights into miRNA-mediated regulatory pathways in bamboo, and will contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the molecular mechanisms governing rapid growth.
15Multi-omics analysis of cellular pathways involved in different rapid growth stages of moso bamboo.PubMed
Gui-Yun Tao, Muthusamy Ramakrishnan, Kunnummal Kurungara Vinod, et al.
Tree Physiol. 2020 Oct 29;40(11):1487-1508. doi: 10.1093/treephys/tpaa090.
Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis (Carriere) J. Houzeau) is a rapidly growing grass of industrial and ecological importance. However, the molecular mechanisms of its remarkable growth are not well understood. In this study, we investigated the early-stage growth of moso bamboo shoots and defined three different growth stages based on histological and biochemical analyses, namely, starting of cell division (SD), rapid division (RD) and rapid elongation (RE). Further analyses on potentially relevant cellular pathways in these growth stages using multi-omics approaches such as transcriptomics and proteomics revealed the involvement of multiple cellular pathways, including DNA replication, repair and ribosome biogenesis. A total of 8045 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and 1053 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were identified in our analyses. Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment analyses of detected DEGs identified several key biological pathways such as phytohormone metabolism, signal transduction, cell wall development and carbohydrate metabolism. The comparative analysis of proteins displayed that a total of 213 DEPs corresponded with DEGs and 3 significant expression profiles that could be promoting the fast growth of bamboo internodes. Moreover, protein-protein interaction network prediction analysis is suggestive of the involvement of five major proteins of signal transduction, DNA synthesis and RNA transcription, and may act as key elements responsible for the rapid shoot growth. Our work exploits multi-omics and bioinformatic approaches to unfurl the complexity of molecular networks involved in the rapid growth of moso bamboo and opens up questions related to the interactions between the functions played by individual molecular pathway.
16Evolutionary relationship of moso bamboo forms and a multihormone regulatory cascade involving culm shape variation.PubMed
Yan Liu, Chenglei Zhu, Xianghua Yue, et al.
Plant Biotechnol J. 2024 Sep;22(9):2578-2592. doi: 10.1111/pbi.14370. Epub 2024 May 14.
Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) known as Mao Zhu (MZ) in Chinese exhibits various forms with distinct morphological characteristics. However, the evolutionary relationship among MZ forms and the mechanisms of culm shape variation are still lacking. Here, the main differences among MZ forms were identified as culm shape variation, which were confirmed by analysing MZ forms (799 bamboo culms) and MZ (458 bamboo culms) populations. To unravel the genetic basis underlying the morphological variations, 20 MZ forms were subjected to whole-genome resequencing. Further analysis yielded 3 230 107 high-quality SNPs and uncovered low genetic diversity and high genotype heterozygosity associated with MZ forms' formation. By integrating the SNP data of 427 MZ individuals representing 15 geographic regions, the origins of eight MZ forms were successfully traced using the phylogenetic tree and the identified common heterozygous loci. Meanwhile, transcriptomic analysis was performed using shoots from MZ and its two forms with culm shape variation. The results, combined with genomic analyses, demonstrated that hormone signalling related genes played crucial roles in culm variation. Co-expression network analysis uncovered genes associated with multiple plant hormone signal transduction, especially auxin and cytokinin were involved in culm shape variation. Furthermore, the regulatory relationships of a specific transcription factor and their target genes associated with auxin and ethylene signalling were validated by yeast one-hybrid, electrophoretic mobility shift assays, and dual-luciferase reporter. Overall, this study provides important insights into the culm shape variation formation in bamboo, which facilitates to breed new varieties with novel culms.
17Identification and Characterization of Genes in Moso Bamboo ().PubMed
Sujin Zheng, Kihye Shin, Wenxiong Lin, et al.
Int J Mol Sci. 2023 Apr 7;24(8):6886. doi: 10.3390/ijms24086886.
Basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH)/HLH transcription factors are involved in various aspects of the growth and development of plants. Here, we identified four HLH genes, -, in moso bamboo plants that are homologous to genes. In bamboo seedlings, were found to be highly expressed in the internode and lamina joint by using quantitative RT-PCR analysis. In the elongating internode of bamboo shoots, genes are expressed at higher levels in the basal segment than in the mature top segment. Overexpression of s (s-) in showed longer petioles and hypocotyls, as well as earlier flowering. overexpression restored the phenotype due to the deficiency of genes caused by artificial micro-RNA. plants showed hypersensitivity to propiconazole treatment compared with the wild type. In addition, PePRE1/3 but not PePRE2/4 proteins accumulated as punctate structures in the cytosol, which was disrupted by the vesicle recycling inhibitor brefeldin A (BFA). genes have a positive function in the internode elongation of moso bamboo shoots, and overexpression of PePREs genes promotes flowering and growth in . Our findings provided new insights about the fast-growing mechanism of bamboo shoots and the application of genes from bamboo.
18Anatomical and Transcriptome Analyses of Moso Bamboo Culm Neck Growth: Unveiling Key Insights.PubMed
Lin Guo, Tianguo Chen, Xue Chu, et al.
Plants (Basel). 2023 Oct 4;12(19):3478. doi: 10.3390/plants12193478.
The Moso bamboo culm neck, connected with the rhizome and the shoot bud, is an important hub for connecting and transporting the aboveground and belowground systems of bamboo for the shoot bud development and rapid growth. Our previous study revealed that the culm neck generally undergoes six different developmental stages (CNS1-CNS6), according to the primary thickening growth of the underground shoot bud. However, the molecular mechanism of the culm neck development remains unknown. The present study focused on the developmental process of the CNS3-CNS5 stages, representing the early, middle, and late elongation stages, respectively. These stages are densely packed with vascular tissues and consist of epidermis, hypodermis, cortex, and ground tissue. Unlike the hollow structure of the culms, the culm necks are solid structures. As the culm neck continues to grow, the lignin deposition increases noticeably, contributing to its progressive strengthening. For the transcriptome analysis, a total of 161,160 transcripts with an average length of 2373 were obtained from these stages using both PacBio and Illumina sequencing. A total of 92.2% of the reads mapped to the Moso bamboo reference genome. Further analysis identified a total of 5524 novel genes and revealed a dynamic transcriptome. Secondary-metabolism- and transport-related genes were upregulated particularly with the growth of the culm neck. Further analysis revealed the molecular processes of lignin accumulation in the culm neck, which include differentially expressed genes (DEGs) related to cell wall loosening and remodeling and secondary metabolism. Moreover, the upregulations of transcription factors such as and in the MYB family play crucial roles during critical transitions in the culm neck development, such as changes in the angle between the rhizome and the culm neck. Our new findings provide essential insights into the cellular roadmaps, transcriptional networks, and key genes involved in the culm neck development.
19Transcriptome and miRNAome analysis reveals components regulating tissue differentiation of bamboo shoots.PubMed
Ying Li, Deqiang Zhang, Shuqin Zhang, et al.
Plant Physiol. 2022 Mar 28;188(4):2182-2198. doi: 10.1093/plphys/kiac018.
Primary thickening determines bamboo yield and wood property. However, little is known about the regulatory networks involved in this process. This study identified a total of 58,652 genes and 150 miRNAs via transcriptome and small RNA sequencing using the underground thickening shoot samples of wild-type (WT) Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) and a thick wall (TW) variant (P. edulis "Pachyloen") at five developmental stages (WTS1/TWS1-WTS5/TWS5). A total of 14,029 (65.17%) differentially expressed genes and 68 (45.33%) differentially expressed miRNAs were identified from the WT, TW, and WTTW groups. The first two groups were composed of four pairwise combinations, each between two successive stages (WTS2/TWS2_versus_WTS1/TWS1, WTS3/TWS3_versus_WTS2/TWS2, WTS4/TWS4_versus_WTS3/TWS3, and WTS5/TWS5_versus_WTS4/TWS4), and the WTTW group was composed of five combinations, each between two relative stages (TWS1-5_versus_WTS1-5). Additionally, among the phytohormones, zeatin showed more remarkable changes in concentrations than indole-3-acetic acid, gibberellic acid, and abscisic acid throughout the five stages in the WT and the TW groups. Moreover, 125 cleavage sites were identified for 387 miRNA-mRNA pairs via degradome sequencing (P < 0.05). The dual-luciferase reporter assay confirmed that 13 miRNAs bound to 12 targets. Fluorescence in situ hybridization localized miR166 and miR160 in the shoot apical meristem and the procambium of Moso bamboo shoots at the S1 stage. Thus, primary thickening is a complex process regulated by miRNA-gene-phytohormone networks, and the miRNAome and transcriptome dynamics regulate phenotypic plasticity. These findings provide insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying wood formation and properties and propose targets for bamboo breeding.
20Stable isotope labelling and gene expression analysis reveal dynamic nitrogen-supply mechanisms for rapid growth of Moso bamboo.PubMed
Junbo Zhang, Man Shi, Chenglei Zhu, et al.
Hortic Res. 2025 Feb 25;12(6):uhaf062. doi: 10.1093/hr/uhaf062. eCollection 2025 Jun.
Rapid growth of Moso bamboo () shoots (offspring ramet) is primarily fuelled by nitrogen (N) derived from parent ramet and absorbed by rhizome roots. However, the extent to which each N source supports the growth of offspring ramet and the underlying molecular mechanisms of N transport remain unclear. Here, clonal fragments consisting of a parent ramet, an offspring ramet, and an interconnected rhizome were established in a Moso bamboo forest. Additionally, N isotope tracing and transcriptome profiling were conducted concurrently to quantify the N contribution from the parent ramet and rhizome roots to the offspring ramet, and to reveal the molecular mechanisms underlying N transport during rapid growth (i.e. early, peak, branching, and leafing stages). The N acquisition strategy of offspring ramet shifted from being primarily provided by the parent ramet (72.53%) during early stage to being predominantly absorbed by rhizome roots (69.85%) during the leafing stage. Approximately equal N contributions (45.82%-54.18%) from the parent ramet and rhizome roots were observed during peak and branching stages. was identified as a key gene for N transport, being most closely correlated with N content. Biomolecular assays demonstrated that PeHDZ23987 could activate the expression of via two types of HD-motifs. Overexpression of and significantly enhanced N starvation tolerance in transgenic rice with significantly improved N uptake efficiency. Our findings clarify the pattern and mechanisms of N supply for the rapid growth of Moso bamboo offspring ramet and provide transcriptomic evidence for long-distance N transport between clonal ramets.
21Mechanical properties of raw bamboo fiber-reinforced phosphogypsum-based composite cementitious materials and their strengthening mechanism.PubMed
Xian Fu, Peng Liu, Dewen Kong, et al.
PLoS One. 2025 May 23;20(5):e0323011. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0323011. eCollection 2025.
Phosphogypsum-based cementitious materials (PGCs) typically exhibit low strength and poor toughness when utilized as construction materials. This study explores the incorporation of raw bamboo fibers of varying lengths into PGCs at different ratios to develop raw bamboo fiber-reinforced phosphogypsum-based composite materials (BFRPGCs). Firstly, the influence of the water-cement ratio on the mechanical properties of BFRPGCs was investigated through a one-factor experimental approach, leading to the identification of an optimal water-cement ratio. Secondly, the effects of the length and content of raw bamboo fibers on the mechanical properties of BFRPGCs at this optimal water-cement ratio were examined, along with an exploration of the mechanisms by which raw bamboo fibers impact the mechanical properties of the composites, considering their damage modes. Finally, the microstructure of BFRPGCs was analyzed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), which elucidated the mechanisms through which raw bamboo fibers influence the working and mechanical properties of the composites. The results demonstrated that the incorporation of raw bamboo fibers significantly enhanced the mechanical strength of the specimens. Specifically, when the length of the bamboo fibers was 12 mm and the doping amount was 1.0%, the compressive and flexural strengths of BFRPGCs reached their maxima at 28.99 MPa and 8.41 MPa, respectively. These values represent increases of 123.73% and 169.82% compared to the control group. Additionally, hydration-generated calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gels and calcium aluminate (AFt) phases formed a skeletal support around the CaSO₄·2H₂O, reinforcing the matrix structure. Furthermore, numerous hydration products adhered to the surfaces of the raw bamboo fibers, resulting in enhanced adhesion between the fibers and the matrix. This study provides valuable insights for the research and application of fiber-reinforced phosphogypsum-based building materials.
22Ultra-microstructure analysis and model development of bamboo fiber cell walls.PubMed
Meiling Chen, Xin An, Yan He, et al.
Int J Biol Macromol. 2024 Sep 24;280(Pt 3):135986. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.135986.
Bamboo fiber cell walls are crucial mechanical load-bearing units in plants, significantly influencing their physical and mechanical properties. This study explored the multi-layered structure and microfibril orientation of typical moso bamboo fiber with two broad layers. The microfibrils in the primary cell wall exhibited a disordered mesh-like structure with a microfibril angle (MFA) of 90°. The alternating narrow and broad layers in the secondary walls constituted the growth cycle layer together. Within this structure, the microfibrils were oriented in both Z-helices and S-helices. In the narrow layers, the MFA transitioned gradually from outer to inner layers, ranging from approximately 70° to 30°. Conversely, the broad layers had smaller MFA, ranging from about 5° to 20°. Finally, a typical model of multi-layered microfibril orientation of 4-year-old moso bamboo fiber cells was proposed.
23Structural adaptations of curved-stem moso bamboo: tissue specialization for resilience under mechanical stress.PubMed
Jianyi Zhu, Kaiwen Chen, Wenjuan Zhao, et al.
Acta Biomater. 2025 Aug;202:365-376. doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2025.07.020. Epub 2025 Jul 9.
Reaction tissues in plants develop in response to external stresses. In bamboo, the absence of secondary thickening has been the cause of an ongoing debate over the role of reaction tissues in stress responses. Herein, we evaluated the structural and mechanical basis underlying the curved-stem moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) to determine whether reaction tissues are involved. Our findings reveal that curved-stem moso bamboo exhibits adaptive structural features across multiple hierarchical levels. At the macroscopic level, the convex side of the culm, subjected to greater compressive stress, shows a growth strain magnitude 3.9 times higher than that of the concave side. This side also develops a thicker culm wall, resulting in an eccentric elliptical cross-section geometry that reduced internal stress by up to 8.8 %. At the cellular level, underdeveloped fibers with poorly layered cell walls form a "hinge-like" interface between fiber and parenchyma tissues, alleviating stress concentration in fibers. Additionally, the lignin content in the cell walls is significantly higher by 9 % compared to that of upright-stem bamboo, while the microfibril angle increases markedly (exceeding 20 °). This combination facilitates synergistic load-bearing between the cellulose skeleton and the surrounding matrix under tensile stress. These structural adaptations on both convex and concave sides lead to reduced stiffness and strength, as evidenced by axial tensile moduli that are 27.3 % and 54.7 % lower than those of upright-stem bamboo. However, they enhance stress transmission efficiency and effectively mitigate the bending effects induced by gravitational forces. This challenges the notion that monocots cannot form reaction tissues and has significant implications for heterogeneous high-performance biomimetic design. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: It is questioned whether reaction tissue exist in curved-stem moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis). Our analysis has revealed adaptive structural features of curved-stem moso bamboo across multiple hierarchical levels. At the cellular level, underdeveloped fiber cells with fewer cell wall layers create a "hinge" structure between the fibers and parenchyma tissues. Lignin concentration increases in cell walls, and microfibrils alignment angle increased (> 20°). These adaptations reduce stiffness and strength on both the convex and concave sides, enhancing stress transfer and mitigating the effects of gravitational forces.
24Revolutionary bamboo crash barriers utilizing sustainable materials for enhanced road safety.PubMed
N Jiyas, Indu Sasidharan, K Bindu Kumar
Sci Rep. 2025 Jan 24;15(1):3114. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-86221-6.
Road accidents are a growing concern worldwide, and crash barriers have significantly reduced the severity of these incidents. In its pursuit of developing an eco-friendly crash barrier, India installed the world's first 200 m bamboo crash barrier, on Bombay-Pune Highway. Although its eco-friendly and recyclable design is commendable, using Bambusa balcooa infused with creosote oil and covered with High-density polyethylene (HDPE) raises substantial health and environmental issues due to the presence of toxic and carcinogenic Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). To address these concerns, a novel eco-friendly design has been proposed, utilizing Pseudoxytenanthera bamboo species treated with Cashew nutshell liquid (CNSL). This study rigorously characterizes these bamboo species through mechanical testing at both nodes and internodes, evaluating critical strength parameters such as axial tensile modulus, ultimate strength, compression strength, flexural strength, and impact strength. Scanning electron microscopy is employed to examine fracture morphology, linking the natural fiber characteristics to their mechanical properties. The results indicate that Pseudoxytenanthera stocksii exhibits superior Tensile strength (496.73 MPa), flexural (235.57 MPa), Impact strength (4.8 kJ/m) and compressive strength (68.66 MPa), with a direct correlation between density, particularly in nodal regions. The final phase involves chemically validating the bamboo treated with CNSL to enhance its environmental friendliness, presenting a viable alternative to steel for sustainable infrastructure. This study presents a high-strength sustainable and non-toxic alternative to conventional crash barriers by utilising Pseudoxytenanthera bamboo species treated with CNSL, replacing the toxic creosote-treated Bambusa balcooa, and offering a robust solution for safer road infrastructure while advancing green engineering practices.
25Gradient Variation and Correlation Analysis of Physical and Mechanical Properties of Moso Bamboo ().PubMed
Tian Jiang, Xinyu Feng, Zexuan Xia, et al.
Materials (Basel). 2024 Apr 28;17(9):2069. doi: 10.3390/ma17092069.
This study aimed to investigate the gradient properties of bamboo at the microscopic level and provide a basis for improving the utilization rate of bamboo. Using moso bamboo ( (Carrière) J. Houz.) as a research subject, the variation of vascular bundle area percentage, chemical content, relative crystallinity (CR), mechanical properties of different bamboo slivers, and correlation between those parameters were analyzed. From the bamboo green layer (BGL) to the bamboo yellow layer (BYL), the distribution of vascular bundles changed from dense to sparse. Cellulose and lignin mass content decreased gently, and hemicellulose mass content showed gradual increases. The CR showed an order of bamboo middle layer (BML) > BGL > BYL. The tensile modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, bending modulus of elasticity, and bending strength decreased from BGL to BYL. The order of influence degree on mechanical properties of moso bamboo was vascular bundle area, hemicellulose content, lignin mass content, density, and CR, and these factors correlated with mechanical properties at a significant level ( 0.05). Vascular bundle area had a decisive effect on the mechanical properties of bamboo. The vascular bundle area and density were linearly correlated with mechanical properties, while the lignin mass content and CR were curve-linearly correlated with mechanical properties.
26Quantitative morphological transformation of vascular bundles in the culm of moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens).PubMed
Taku Tsuyama, Kensei Hamai, Yoshio Kijidani, et al.
PLoS One. 2023 Sep 21;18(9):e0290732. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0290732. eCollection 2023.
Vascular bundles of bamboo are determinants for mechanical properties of bamboo material and for physiological properties of living bamboo. The morphology of vascular bundles reflecting mechanical and physiological functions differs not only within internode tissue but also among different internodes in the culm. Although the distribution of vascular bundle fibers has received much attention, quantitative evaluation of the morphological transformation of vascular bundles associated with spatial distribution patterns has been limited. In this study deep learning models were used to determine quantitative changes in the distribution and morphology of vascular bundles in the culms of moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens). A precise model for extracting vascular bundles from cross-sectional images was constructed using the U-Net model. Analyses of extracted vascular bundles from different internodes showed significant changes in vascular bundle distribution and morphology among internodes. Vascular bundles in lower internodes showed outer relative position and larger area than those in upper internodes. Aspect ratio and eccentricity indicate that vascular bundles in internodes near the base have more elliptical morphology, with a long axis in the radial direction. The variational autoencoder model using extracted vascular bundles enabled simulation of the morphological transformation of vascular bundles along with radial direction. These deep learning models enabled highly accurate quantification of vascular bundle morphologies, and will contribute to a further understanding of bamboo development as well as evaluation of the mechanical and physiological properties of bamboo.
27Fiber Characteristics and Mechanical Properties of .PubMed
Linpeng Yu, Fukuan Dai, Kangjian Zhang, et al.
Plants (Basel). 2023 Aug 18;12(16):2987. doi: 10.3390/plants12162987.
Unlike the culm hollow structure of most bamboo species, has a unique solid or semi-solid culm, which may endow it with superior mechanical performance. In this study, the variation in fiber morphology and micro-mechanical properties across the radial regions of bamboo culm was examined by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and nanoindentation. Results showed that the mean values of vascular bundle frequency and fiber tissue proportion were 1.76 pcs/mm2 and 21.04%, respectively, both of which increased gradually from inner to outer. The mean length, diameter, and length-diameter ratio of the fiber were 2.10 mm, 21.54 μm, and 101.41 respectively. The mean indentation modulus of elasticity (IMOE) and hardness were 21.34 GPa and 545.88 MPa. The IMOE exhibited a significant increase from the inner to the middle region, and little change was observed from the middle to the outer region. There were slight fluctuations in hardness along the radial direction. The mean crystallinity and microfibril angle(MFA) of the fibers was 68.12% and 11.26 degrees, respectively. There is a positive correlation between cellulose crystallinity and the IMOE and hardness, while there is a negative correlation between the MFA and the IMOE and the hardness.
28Sustainable high-strength and dimensionally stable composites through in situ regulation and reconstitution of bamboo-derived lignin and hemicellulose contents.PubMed
Shanyu Han, Xiaoyi Chen, Fuming Chen, et al.
Int J Biol Macromol. 2024 May;267(Pt 2):131595. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.131595. Epub 2024 Apr 14.
The development of modern construction and transportation industries demands increasingly high requirements for thin, lightweight, high-strength, and highly tough composite materials, such as metal carbides and concrete. Bamboo is a green, low-carbon, fast-growing, renewable, and biodegradable material with high strength and toughness. However, the density of its inner layer is low due to the functional gradient (the volume fraction of vascular bundles decreases from the outer layer to the inner layer), resulting in low performance, high compressibility, and significant amounts of bamboo waste. We utilized chemical and mechanical treatments of bamboo's low-density, low-strength inner layers to create lightweight, ultra-thin, high-strength, and high-toughness composites. The treatment included the partial removal of lignin and hemicellulose to alter the chemical components, followed by mechanical drying and hot pressing. The treated bamboo had 100.8 % higher tensile strength (150.35 MPa), 47.7 % higher flexural strength (97.67 MPa), and 132.0 % higher water resistance and was approximately 68.9 % thinner than the natural bamboo. The excellent physical and mechanical properties of the treated bamboo are attributed to the contraction of parenchyma cells during delignification, the interlocking due to the collapse of parenchyma cells during mechanical drying, and an increase in the density of hydrogen bonds between cellulose molecular chains during hot pressing. Our research provides a new strategy for obtaining sustainable, ultra-thin, lightweight, high-strength, and high-toughness composite materials from bamboo for construction and transportation applications.
29Bio-inspired protective structures for marine applications.PubMed
Giulia Palomba, Timothy Hone, David Taylor, et al.
Bioinspir Biomim. 2020 Aug 21;15(5):056016. doi: 10.1088/1748-3190/aba1d1.
Materials and structures for marine applications are often required to combine high mechanical performance with lightness, but traditional solutions are not always adequate to the scope. The application of biomimetic science could provide innovative and efficient solutions, whose research is the aim of the present paper. In the current work, bamboo samples were subjected to impact both on the outside and on the inside surface. It was found that the impact strength is correlated to the third power of thickness and that the softer inside layers may act as an energy absorbing structure, which enhance impact resistance. Impact tests were also performed on specimens whose outside surface had been abraded and on whole cylindrical sections. The role of graded and hierarchical structure in impact response, suggested some guidelines for bio-inspired structures design. Four bamboo-inspired structures were designed, based on the idea of combining corrugated panels with different geometrical characteristics to resemble bamboo graded and hierarchical structure. These structures were made using 3D printing and tested in compression. The best performance was obtained by the structure which more closely replicates bamboo's hierarchy. Structure performance could be predicted with reasonable accuracy using buckling theory.
30Mechanical Behavior of Bamboo-Like Structures under Transversal Compressive Loading.PubMed
Siyi Wang, Jiayang Wang, Kyriakos Komvopoulos
Biomimetics (Basel). 2023 Mar 5;8(1):103. doi: 10.3390/biomimetics8010103.
Inspired by many biological structures in nature, biomimetic structures demonstrate significantly better mechanical performance than traditional engineering structures. The exceptional mechanical properties of natural materials are attributed to the hierarchical architecture of their structure. Consequently, the implementation of biomimetic structures in the design of lightweight structures with tailored mechanical properties has been constantly increasing in many fields of science and engineering. The bamboo structure is of particular interest because it combines a light weight and excellent mechanical properties, often surpassing those of several engineering materials. The objective of this study was to evaluate the mechanical behavior of bamboo-inspired structures subjected to transversal compressive loading. Structures consisting of bamboo-like thin-walled hexagonal building blocks (unit cells) with different dimensions were fabricated by stereolithography 3D printing and their mechanical performance was evaluated by mechanical testing, high-speed camera video recordings, and finite element simulations. The results of the elastic modulus, yield strength, and strain energy density at fracture were interpreted in terms of characteristic dimensions of the unit cell structure. The failure process was elucidated in the light of images of the fractured structures and simulation strain maps. The results of this study demonstrate that ultralight bamboo-like structures with specific mechanical characteristics can be produced by optimizing the dimensions and number density of the hexagonal unit cell.
31Bionic Inner-Tapered Energy Absorption Tube Featuring Progressively Enhanced Fold Deformation Mode.PubMed
Shuang Zhang, Zhengzhi Mu, Wenda Song, et al.
Biomimetics (Basel). 2024 Dec 26;10(1):6. doi: 10.3390/biomimetics10010006.
Slender tubes are in high demand owing to their lightweight and outstanding energy absorption. However, conventional slender tubes are prone to catastrophic failures such as Euler's buckling under axial load. Interestingly, growing bamboos overcome this similar dilemma via a unique tapered intine in the internodes, which endows them with excellent energy absorption. Inspired by this finding, a bionic inner-tapered tube (BITT) was designed to enhance the energy absorption of slender tubes under axial load. The special energy absorption (SEA) was evaluated via a quasi-static axial compression test. Then, theoretical calculation and finite element analysis were carried out to analyze the energy absorption mechanisms. The results reveal that the tapered inner wall induces a progressively enhanced fold deformation mode for BITT, which not only prevents buckling failure and decreases initial peak crushing load but also improves the energy absorption efficiency by increasing plastic deformation. The influences of taper and length-diameter ratio on the axial energy absorption of BITT are explored. Finally, the bionic square array (BSA) and bionic hexagon array (BHA) are fabricated by taking BITT as the basic structural unit, which significantly improves the main energy absorption performance indicators under axial load.
32Crashworthiness Performance of Bamboo-Inspired 3D-Printed Tubes: Effects of Infill Pattern, Infill Ratio, Wall Thickness, and Inner Diameter.PubMed
Emre İsa Albak
Biomimetics (Basel). 2025 Oct 17;10(10):702. doi: 10.3390/biomimetics10100702.
This study investigates the impact absorption performance of bamboo-inspired 3D-printed circular tubes in terms of infill type (grid, gyroid, honeycomb, Archimedean chords), infill ratio (10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%), wall thickness (0.8, 1.2, 1.6, and 2.0 mm), and inner diameter parameters. The structures designed using Taguchi L16 orthogonal design are printed with PLA material using FDM technology and evaluated by quasi-static compression tests. Peak crushing force (PCF), energy absorption (EA), and specific energy absorption (SEA) criteria are used to analyse crashworthiness performance. The experimental results showed that EA improves as the infill rate increases, but the gain decreases as the infill rate approaches 40% (SEA at 30% is better than that at 40%). By visualising the PCF and EA data relative to the utopia point (the lowest PCF and highest EA), GRID_T16F30D24, HCOMB_T08F30D22, and GRID_T12F20D22 are found to be the best-performing tubes. The grid and honeycomb infill types showed superiority at 20-30% infill rates and similar wall thicknesses. The Archimedean chords type performed poorly due to its tendency to fracture.
33Variance investigation on the microstructural characteristics of vessels among three lignocellulosic biomasses.PubMed
Ming Yao, Zhaoyang Yu, Yuan Liu, et al.
Sci Rep. 2024 Oct 31;14(1):26207. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-72741-0.
Especially, the processing and utilization of biomass-based material is closely related to the vessel, e.g. the flow of vapour and additive. It is conventional that vessels in most plants can influence on water and nutrients transport between adjacent cells, which could just infer to be important in the wood-based panel industries. In this work, a complete characterization of vessels and pits is presented for three conventional biomasses in wood-based panel: poplar (Populus deltoides) (P), moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) (B), and the fruit shell of oil camellia (Camellia Oleifera) (FS_OC). Every material is analyzed by combining several techniques including: light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and surveying calculations from resin casting. The results show that among the three biomass materials, B has a significantly larger vessel width (164.8 ± 6.0 μm for B, 2.2 ± 6.2 μm for P, 10.0 ± 0.8 μm for FS_OC) and smaller inclination angle of the perforation plates (6.8° for B, 44.7° for P), which is more conductive to improving moisture transfer between the vessels. The vessel length of P varies widely from 676.8 μm to 1025.2 μm, which is related to its seasonal growth. By resin casting analysis, more differences in the morphology and distribution of pits in the vessel walls were observed between the three species. Such as, For B, there are numerous pits between vessel cells, while very few to none between vessel and parenchyma cells or fiber. In addition to pits, B and FS_OC also have spiral thickening structures on their vessel walls. The pit membrane is an elliptical shape in P, while slit-like shape in FS_OC and a combination of both elliptical and slit-like shape in bamboo. The unique microstructural characteristics of vessels is related to the individual plant growth traits, which is the basis for biomass-based material processing and utilization.
34Bamboo-inspired tubular scaffolds with functional gradients.PubMed
Kaiyang Yin, Max D Mylo, Thomas Speck, et al.
J Mech Behav Biomed Mater. 2020 Oct;110:103826. doi: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2020.103826. Epub 2020 May 18.
Bamboo achieves its mechanical efficiency in bending and compression, meaning mechanical performance per unit mass, due to its hierarchical structure. As an orthotropic tube with a higher strength and stiffness parallel to the tube axis and with a density and property gradient across the tube wall, in which fiber bundles are embedded in a porous matrix, the bamboo culm is both stiffer and stronger in bending and less prone to ovalization and catastrophic failure than an orthotropic tube without property gradients would be. Few engineered materials exist that emulate bamboo's mechanical efficiency. The results of the study presented here demonstrate that freeze casting (ice templating) is a manufacturing process with which bamboo-inspired tubular scaffolds with property gradients across the tube wall can be custom-made. A highly aligned, honeycomb-like porosity is generated by ice crystal growth opposite to the direction of heat flow. Using a core-shell mold, the microstructure of the tube wall material, such as the pore size, geometry, and alignment, is defined by the mold materials' properties and applied cooling conditions. These also allow to custom-design the desired property gradient across the section. Further customization of the tube gradient structure and properties is possible through the deposition of additional layers on the freeze-cast scaffolds. Characterizing the pore structures of the tubes using X-ray microtomography, pore morphology and property gradients can be analyzed and correlated to both the processing conditions and the resulting mechanical properties determined in three-point bending, longitudinal and radial compression. The resulting fundamental structure-property-processing correlations support the custom design of tubular scaffolds that are ideally suited for applications that range from conduits for peripheral nerve repair to ureteral stents.
35Bending efficiency through property gradients in bamboo, palm, and wood-based composites.PubMed
Ulrike G K Wegst
J Mech Behav Biomed Mater. 2011 Jul;4(5):744-55. doi: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2011.02.013. Epub 2011 Mar 1.
Nature, to a greater extent than engineering, takes advantage of hierarchical structures. These allow for optimization at each structural level to achieve mechanical efficiency, meaning mechanical performance per unit mass. Palms and bamboos do this exceptionally well; both are fibre-reinforced cellular materials in which the fibres are aligned parallel to the stem or culm, respectively. The distribution of these fibres is, however, not uniform: there is a density and modulus gradient across the section. This property gradient increases the flexural rigidity of the plants per unit mass, mass being a measure of metabolic investment made into an organism's construction. An analytical model is presented with which a 'gradient shape factor' can be calculated that describes by how much a plant's bending efficiency is increased through gradient structures. Combining the 'gradient shape factor' with a 'microstructural shape factor' that captures the efficiency gained through the cellular nature of the fibre composite's matrix, and a 'macroscopical shape factor' with which the tubular shape of bamboo can be described, for example, it is possible to explore how much each of these three structural levels of the hierarchy contributes to the overall bending performance of the stem or culm. In analogy, the bending efficiency of the commonly used wood-based composite medium-density fibreboard can be analysed; its property gradient is due to its manufacture by hot pressing. A few other engineered materials exist that emulate property gradients; new manufacturing routes to prepare them are currently being explored. It appears worthwhile to pursue these further.
36Multiscale structural insights of load bearing bamboo: A computational modeling approach.PubMed
Junhe Cui, Zhao Qin, Admir Masic, et al.
J Mech Behav Biomed Mater. 2020 Jul;107:103743. doi: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2020.103743. Epub 2020 Mar 26.
Bamboo has been widely utilized as a load bearing material in building construction since ancient times by taking advantage of its excellent mechanical performances under loading as well as its low density and rapid growth. Applications of bamboo to engineering, architecture, and infrastructure require an in-depth understanding of the relationship between its morphology and mechanics, including how this regularly spaced segmental structure adapts to taking the applied loads. However, previous research on buckling behavior of structural bamboo considered it as a homogenous tube without multiscale structural features, and no reasonable explanation for the regular segment length was proposed. Here, we have implemented representative volume elements within the framework of finite element analysis to study the mechanical response of a bamboo culm under axial compressive load and systematically investigated how the bamboo's hierarchical structural features (e.g., gradient fiber distribution, periodic nodes, and others) contribute to its compression capacity. We find that column buckling is a critical failure mode that leads to the collapse of the entire structure, which can be disastrous. We observe that the gradient fiber distribution pattern along the radial direction significantly contributes to its strength. We find that the occurrence of fiber deviation at the node region reduces the strength of bamboo. Nevertheless, our results show that structural features such as external ridge and internal diaphragm play the role of reinforcement while the effect is more significant for bamboo than other plants with similar node appearance. Our work provides structural insights into the outstanding mechanics of bamboo. Such information could provide a guide for engineers to predict the material mechanics according to its structure, design bamboo-inspired composite materials, and construct high-performance architectures with bamboo accordingly.
37Investigation of Bamboo Fibrous Tensile Strength Using Modified Weibull Distribution.PubMed
Yalew Dessalegn, Balkeshwar Singh, Aart W van Vuure, et al.
Materials (Basel). 2022 Jul 19;15(14):5016. doi: 10.3390/ma15145016.
Ethiopia has a large coverage of bamboo plants that are used for furniture making and house building. So far, researchers have not studied the strength of Ethiopian bamboo fibers, which are utilized for composite applications. The current study measured the strength of bamboo fibers based on various testing lengths and calculated the predictive tensile strength using a modified Weibull distribution. Moreover, the quality of the extraction machine is evaluated based on shape and sensitivity parameters. This research paper incorporates the coefficient of variation of the fiber diameters, considering the defects distribution through the length for measuring the predictive strength of the fibers. The fiber diameters were calculated using the area weight methods, which had its density measured using a Pycnometer. It has been examined that as the testing gauge length and coefficient variation of fiber diameter simultaneously increased, the tensile strength of the bamboo fibers decreased. The shape parameter, sensitivity parameter, and characteristic strength of Injibara bamboo () are 6.02-7.83, 0.63, and 459-642 MPa, whereas Kombolcha bamboo () are 5.87-10.21, 0.33, and 408-638 MPa, as well as Mekaneselam bamboo () are 5.86-9.63, 0.33 and 488-597 MPa, respectively.
38Influence of Age and Harvesting Season on The Tensile Strength of Bamboo-Fibre-Reinforced Epoxy Composites.PubMed
Yalew Dessalegn, Balkeshwar Singh, Aart W van Vuure, et al.
Materials (Basel). 2022 Jun 10;15(12):4144. doi: 10.3390/ma15124144.
The purpose of this study was to measure the strength of various bamboo fibres and their epoxy composites based on the bamboo ages and harvesting seasons. Three representative samples of 1-3-year-old bamboo plants were collected in November and February. Bamboo fibres and their epoxy composites had the highest tensile strength and Young's modulus at 2 years old and in November. The back-calculated tensile strengths using the "rule of mixture" of Injibara, Kombolcha, and Mekaneselam bamboo-fibre-reinforced epoxy composites were 548 ± 40-422 ± 33 MPa, 496 ± 16-339 ± 30 MPa, and 541 ± 21-399 ± 55 MPa, whereas the back-calculated Young's moduli using the "rule of mixture" were 48 ± 5-37 ± 3 GPa, 36 ± 4-25 ± 3 GPa, and 44 ± 2-40 ± 2 GPa, respectively. The tensile strengths of the Injibara, Kombolcha, and Mekaneselam bamboo-fibre-reinforced epoxy composites were 227 ± 14-171 ± 22 MPa, 255 ± 18-129 ± 15 MPa, and 206 ± 19-151 ± 11 MPa, whereas Young's moduli were 21 ± 2.9-16 ± 4.24 GPa, 18 ± 0.8-11 ± 0.51 GPa, and 18 ± 0.85-16 ± 0.82 GPa respectively. The highest to the lowest tensile strengths and Young's moduli of bamboo fibres and their epoxy composites were Injibara, Mekaneselam, and Kombolcha, which were the local regional area names from these fibres were extracted. The intended functional application of the current research study is the automobile industries of headliners, which substitute the conventional materials of glass fibres.
39Robust flexural performance and fracture behavior of TiO decorated densified bamboo as sustainable structural materials.PubMed
Ziyu Ba, Hongyun Luo, Juan Guan, et al.
Nat Commun. 2023 Mar 4;14(1):1234. doi: 10.1038/s41467-023-36939-6.
High-performance, fast-growing natural materials with sustainable and functional features currently arouse significant attention. Here, facile processing, involving delignification, in situ hydrothermal synthesis of TiO and pressure densification, is employed to transform natural bamboo into a high-performance structural material. The resulting TiO-decorated densified bamboo exhibits high flexural strength and elastic stiffness, with both properties more than double that of natural bamboo. Real-time acoustic emission reveals the key role of the TiO nanoparticles in enhancing the flexural properties. The introduction of nanoscale TiO is found to markedly increase the degree of oxidation and the formation of hydrogen bonds in bamboo materials, leading to extensive interfacial failure between the microfibers, a micro-fibrillation process that results in substantial energy consumption and high fracture resistance. This work furthers the strategy of the synthetic reinforcement of fast-growing natural materials, which could lead to the expanded applications of sustainable materials for high-performance structural applications.
40Constructing An All-Natural Bulk Structural Material from Surface-Charged Bamboo Cellulose Fibers with Enhanced Mechanical and Thermal Properties.PubMed
Shizheng Qin, Kun Liu, Yuan Wang, et al.
ChemSusChem. 2023 May 19;16(10):e202202185. doi: 10.1002/cssc.202202185. Epub 2023 Mar 28.
Bamboo is widely distributed, rapidly regenerable, and incorporates long cellulose fibers, which make it one of the most lightweight and strong natural materials. Processing bamboo into a high-performance structural material for plastic replacement is highly promising but challenging. In this study, an all-natural, high-performance structural material is derived from natural bamboo with superior mechanical and thermal properties that benefit from the introduction of surface charge and further layer-by-layer assembly of bamboo cellulose fibers. The obtained modified bamboo fiber plate (MBFP) transcends the constraints of the natural size and anisotropy of bamboo, showing high flexural strength (ca. 179 MPa) and flexural modulus (ca. 12 GPa). Moreover, the product has an extremely low coefficient of thermal expansion (ca. 11.3×10 K ), high thermal stability, and superior fire resistance. The excellent mechanical and thermal properties combined with the efficient and rational manufacturing process make MBFP a powerful plastic alternative for furniture, construction, and automotive industries.
41Mechanical Properties of Bambusa Oldhamii and Yushania-Alpina Bamboo Fibres Reinforced Polypropylene Composites.PubMed
Yalew Dessalegn, Balkeshwar Singh, Aart W van Vuure, et al.
Polymers (Basel). 2022 Jul 4;14(13):2733. doi: 10.3390/polym14132733.
The current studies aim to measure the mechanical strength based on age, harvesting season and bamboo species in Ethiopia. The bamboo fibres are extracted using a roll milling machine, which was developed by the author. The age groups (1, 2 and 3 years), harvesting months (February and November), and bamboo species (Yushania alpina and Bambusa oldhamii) are the parameters of the current research studies. Prepregs and composites were produced from bamboo fibres and polypropylene. The mechanical properties of bamboo fibres and their composites in Ethiopia have not been investigated by researchers for the composite application so far. The tensile strength, Young's modulus, and impact strength of injibara (Y. alpina) bamboo fibres reinforced PP composites from the ages of 1- 3 years old in November is 111 ± 9-125 ± 8 MPa, 15 ± 0.9-25 ± 0.72 GPa, and 47 ± 5 KJ/m-57 ± 6 KJ/m, whereas, in February, it is 86 ± 3.86-116 ± 10 MPa, 11 ± 0.71-23 ± 1.5 GPa, and 34 ± 4-52 ± 6 KJ/m, respectively. Moreover, Kombolcha (B. oldhamii), bamboo fibres reinforced PP composites in November are 93 ± 7-111 ± 8 MPa, 7 ± 0.51-17 ± 2.56 GPa, and 39 ± 4-44 ± 5 KJ/m, whereas, in February, it is 60 ± 5-104 ± 10 MPa, 12 ± 0.95-14 ± 0.92 GPa, and 26 ± 3 KJ/m-38 ± 4 KJ/m, respectively. Furthermore, Mekaneselam (Y. alpina) bamboo fibres reinforced PP composites in November are 99 ± 8-120 ± 11 MPa, 9 ± 0.82-16 ± 1.85 GPa, and 37 ± 4 KJ/m-46 ± 5 KJ/m, whereas, in February, it is 91 ± 8-110 ± 9 MPa, 8 ± 0.75-14 ± 1.86 GPa, and 34 ± 3 KJ/m-40 ± 4 KJ/m, respectively. At two years, November and Injibara bamboo have recorded the highest mechanical properties in the current research studies. Bamboo fiber strength in Ethiopia is comparable to the previous study of bamboo fibres and glass fibres used for composite materials in the automotive industry.
42Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Bamboo Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Composites.PubMed
Kai Zhang, Fangxin Wang, Wenyan Liang, et al.
Polymers (Basel). 2018 Jun 3;10(6):608. doi: 10.3390/polym10060608.
Bamboo fibers demonstrate enormous potential as the reinforcement phase in composite materials. In this study, in order to find suitable NaOH concentration for bamboo fiber treatment, bamboo fibers were treated with 2 wt.%, 6 wt.% and 10 wt.% NaOH solutions for 12 h, respectively. We determined that 6 wt.% NaOH treated bamboo fibers were optimal for the fabrication of bamboo fiber composites by single fiber tensile test, single fiber pull-out test, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The short length bamboo fibers treated with 6 wt.% NaOH solutions were well dispersed in the epoxy matrix by a new preparation method. The effect of fiber content and fiber length on the mechanical behavior of bamboo fiber reinforced epoxy composites was investigated. The results confirmed that fracture toughness and flexural modulus of the composites monotonically increased with fiber length and content. However, for all samples, composites showed negligible difference on the flexural strength. The fracture surfaces of the composites were observed by SEM, revealing that fiber breakage, matrix cracking, debonding, and fiber pull out were major failure types. In addition, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was carried out to investigate the thermal behavior of both bamboo fibers and composites.
43Study on the Tensile Properties and Waterproofing Mechanism of Bamboo Fibers Treated by Different Methods.PubMed
Chuncheng Sun, Haiying Cao, Enhua Zhang, et al.
Polymers (Basel). 2025 Nov 26;17(23):3146. doi: 10.3390/polym17233146.
Bamboo fibers have received significant attention due to their biodegradability and environmental benefits. However, their inherent hydrophilicity causes dramatic degradation in mechanical properties after water absorption. Some methods have been adopted to treat bamboo fiber to address this challenge, e.g., sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution treatment, vegetable oil treatment, and carboxylated styrene butadiene rubber (XSBR) treatment. In this study, the sodium silicate solution treatment method is proposed. The effects of four treatment methods on bamboo fibers are systematically evaluated using direct tensile tests, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The results indicate that all four treatment methods can effectively mitigate the reduction in tensile stress and Young's modulus of bamboo fibers after water immersion. Sodium silicate solution (modulus = 3.3)-treated bamboo fibers show the smallest reduction in tensile strength (36.8%), while the Young's modulus of the sodium silicate solution (modulus = 2.3)-treated fibers increased by 4.5%. FTIR analysis shows that four treatment methods lead to reduction in hydrophilic groups in bamboo fiber. For the sodium silicate solution treatment method, a hydrophobic solidified sodium silicate layer forms on the surface of bamboo fibers, which further hinders moisture absorption.
44Potential utilization of Bambusa balcooa in cement mortar as a reinforcing filler to improve flexural and compressive strength.PubMed
Hemlata, Harnisha Rana
Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2025 Oct;32(49):28109-28118. doi: 10.1007/s11356-025-36434-z. Epub 2025 Apr 28.
In present work, the Bambusa balcooa species of bamboo as reinforcement for the partial replacement of cement in mortar structure was analyzed. The bamboo fiber was treated with 10% hot alkaline solution. The bamboo fiber was varied at 0.25%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 5%, and 10 wt% respectively, in cementitious mortar composites. The bamboo fiber-reinforced cementitious mortar composites were evaluated by the means of compressive, flexural, and water absorption test. The compressive strength of the composite increased up to 1 wt% bamboo fiber and the highest value was achieved at 0.5wt% bamboo fiber which is increased by 13.51% while the compressive strength was found to decrease beyond 1 wt% bamboo fiber content comparatively to control sample. Similar trends were observed for flexural strength of the bamboo fiber-reinforced cement mortar composites and the value increased by 7% at 0.5 wt% bamboo fiber as compared to the control sample. The water absorption capacity of the composites was increased with increase in bamboo fiber content and no of days.
45Preparation and Properties of Natural Bamboo Fiber-Reinforced Recycled Aggregate Concrete.PubMed
Binyu Xu, Rongxi Tian, Ying Wang, et al.
Materials (Basel). 2024 Jun 18;17(12):2972. doi: 10.3390/ma17122972.
To promote resource reuse and the green, low-carbon transformation of the construction industry, this study uses recycled aggregate from crushed waste concrete and natural bamboo fibers to formulate bamboo fiber-reinforced recycled-aggregate concrete. This study investigates the effects of natural bamboo fiber (NBF) content, NBF length, and the water-to-cement ratio on the performance of concrete through an orthogonal experiment to determine the optimal mixing proportions of NBF-reinforced concrete. Additionally, recycled aggregate completely replaced natural aggregate. The mechanism by which NBF influences concrete was also analyzed. The results demonstrate that the NBF-reinforced specimens exhibited good integrity during compression failure, with NBFs effectively tying the concrete together. The optimized parameters for NBF-reinforced concrete were an NBF length of 20 mm, an NBF content of 0.4v%, and a water-to-cement ratio of 0.55. Almost no flaky Ca(OH) crystals were observed in the NBF-hardened cement-paste transition zone, indicating effective bonding at the interface.
46Numerical Analysis on Mechanical Properties of Different Fiber-Reinforced Cold-Formed Steel-Concrete Composite Corner Columns.PubMed
Mengyao Li, Yi Hu, Lanzhe Rao, et al.
Polymers (Basel). 2025 Aug 30;17(17):2365. doi: 10.3390/polym17172365.
To overcome brittle failure in conventional cold-formed steel-concrete (CFS-C) corner columns, this paper used fiber-reinforced concrete to replace ordinary concrete, investigating failure mechanisms and performance through systematic numerical simulations. A finite element model (FEM) was established and validated by experiments, and the errors for ultimate capacity were within 10%. A series of numerical models was established for parametric analyses focusing on the effects of the parameters of polypropylene fiber (PF), carbon fiber (CF), steel fiber (SF), and bamboo fiber (BF) with different volume dosages and the thickness of cold-formed steel (CFS) on the axial compression ultimate capacity and corresponding displacement of CFS composite corner columns. The results indicated that (1) PF effectiveness was dependent on steel thickness: thicker steel suppressed micro-defects, activated the toughening potential of PF, and increased the ultimate capacity of the columns by 24.8%. (2) CF had a critical dosage of 0.4%: at this dosage, CF increased the column's ultimate capacity by 14.1% through stress redistribution, while when the dosage exceeded this value, fiber agglomeration caused a reduction in the column's strength, with a maximum decrease of 16.2%. (3) SF effectiveness showed a linear increase: at a dosage of 1.6%, SF formed a synergistic three-dimensional bridging network and generated a confinement effect, increasing the column's ultimate capacity by 36.5% and displacement by 92.2%. (4) BF mainly improved the ductility of columns: through crack bridging and pull-out energy dissipation, BF increased column displacement by 33.2%. (5) The modified Eurocode 4 formula could reduce the calculation error of ultimate capacity from 6.3% to within 1%. The findings guide optimal fiber selection and dosage in practice, promoting such columns' use in seismic and load-bearing structures.
47Bamboo-Inspired Renewable, Lightweight, and Vibration-Damping Laminated Structural Materials for the Floor of a Railroad Car.PubMed
Shanyu Han, Fuming Chen, Yan Yu, et al.
ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2022 Sep 21;14(37):42645-42655. doi: 10.1021/acsami.2c09785. Epub 2022 Sep 12.
It is important for the floor of railroad cars to be fitted with vibration- and noise-reducing, fire-resistant, and durable materials. In this study, inspired by a delicate and ordered bamboo gradient structure and excellent multilevel interfaces, we fabricated a laminated composite with characteristics similar to those of the bamboo structure using a simple and effective "top-down" method by laminating fast-growing wood, waste rubber, and bamboo charcoal plastic sheets made of bamboo processing residues. This composite material combines the unique advantages of a laminated structure design and composite interface bionics. The low density (0.73 g/cm) of the laminated composite results in a specific modulus of 13.03 GPa cm/g, a vibration damping ratio of 6.61%, and an impact toughness of 14.16 J/cm, which is significantly higher than that of other wood-based composites used for high-speed rail floors, such as Birch plywood (BP). In addition, we also investigated the laminated composite bonding property, fire resistance, and fatigue performance. This biomimetic bamboo-wood composite material has great potential for application in fitting the floor of eco-friendly railway cars.
48Experimental Investigations on the Application of Natural Plant Fibers in Ultra-High-Performance Concrete.PubMed
Linus Joachim, Vincent Oettel
Materials (Basel). 2024 Jul 16;17(14):3519. doi: 10.3390/ma17143519.
Due to its high strength, the use of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) is particularly suitable for components subjected to compressive loads. Combined with its excellent durability, UHPC can be used to produce highly resource-efficient components that represent a sustainable alternative to conventional load-bearing structures. Since UHPC fails in a brittle manner without the addition of fibers, it is typically used in conjunction with micro steel fibers. The production of these steel fibers is both expensive and energy-intensive. Natural plant fibers, due to their good mechanical properties, cost-effective availability, and inherent CO neutrality, can provide a sustainable alternative to conventional steel fibers. Thanks to the low alkaline environment and dense matrix of UHPC, the use of natural plant fibers in terms of durability and bond is possible in principle. For the application of natural plant fibers in UHPC, however, knowledge of the load-bearing and post-cracking behavior or the performance of UHPC reinforced with natural plant fibers is essential. Currently, there are no tests available on the influence of different types of natural plant fibers on the load-bearing behavior of UHPC. Therefore, five series of compression and bending tensile tests were conducted. Three series were reinforced with natural plant fibers (bamboo, coir, and flax), one series without fibers, and one series with steel fibers as a reference. Under compression loads, the test specimens reinforced with natural plant fibers did not fail abruptly and exhibited a comparable post-failure behavior and damage pattern to the reference specimens reinforced with steel fibers. In contrast, the natural plant fibers did not perform as well as the steel fibers under bending tensile stress but did show a certain post-cracking bending tensile strength. A final life cycle assessment demonstrates the superiority of natural plant fibers and shows their positive impact on the environment.
49The comparative study on the performance of bamboo fiber and sugarcane bagasse fiber as modifiers in asphalt concrete production.PubMed
Kemal Umer Ahmed, Anteneh Geremew, Abubekir Jemal
Heliyon. 2022 Jul 2;8(7):e09842. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09842. eCollection 2022 Jul.
Highway pavement structures are expected to be adequately strong and durable for their design life which can be achieved only when the pavements are properly designed, constructed, maintained, and managed. In Ethiopia, most of the asphalt pavement is suffering from fatigue, creep, and rutting in long term. These stresses may be occurred due to the shortage in the mechanistic properties of either the binder or the asphalt mixtures as well as due to the increase in traffic loads. Failures of some roads can be attributed to the poor design of the asphalt mixes and materials being used. The properties and dosage of additive materials in hot mix asphalt affect the overall performance of pavement structure. Hence, modifying the properties of asphalt is necessary to enhance the performance of HMA. This study aims to investigate the performance of bamboo fiber and sugarcane bagasse fiber on the mechanical properties of Hot Mix Asphalt production. This research was conducted by using an experimental research design method and Non-Probability sampling techniques were adopted to collect samples. A sample preparation method of asphalt mixture specimens for asphalt mix design was performed based on AASHTO, ASTM and EN Standard specifications. The tests required were aggregate tests, a Bitumen test, Marshall test, and performance tests such Indirect Tensile Strength test and Rutting Test (RT) were conducted to evaluate a comparative study on the performance of bamboo fiber and sugarcane bagasse fiber as a modified Hot Mix Asphalt production. The preparing HMA mixes using crushed stone coarse aggregate, Fine aggregate, Mineral fillers 60/70 Bitumen, and by using bamboo and sugar cane bagasse fiber as additives were used to compare the results at a varying bitumen content of 4.5,5,5.5,6% bitumen. The Asphalt additives were used in the range from 0.2% to 0.5% of the total weight of the sample. Then, finally, the results of the laboratory were compared to standards of specifications. The optimum both fibers content obtained at 0.3% and OAC & OMF (5.2% & 4%) respectively, suggests that using both BF & SCBF fibers in asphalt concrete mixture improves the performance of asphalt pavements to resist external loads. Both fibers at 0.3% content better modify asphalt marshal stability, ITS of HMA, and Rutting resistance of AC. Finally, based on this study it was proved that the performance and properties of Asphalt concrete are affected by Fiber type and its content.
50Durability Evaluation of Outdoor Scrimbers Fabricated from Superheated Steam-Treated Bamboo Fibrous Mats.PubMed
Li Qin, Jinguang Wei, Minzhen Bao, et al.
Polymers (Basel). 2022 Dec 31;15(1):214. doi: 10.3390/polym15010214.
With natural texture and high performance, bamboo scrimber is one of the artificial lignocellulosic composites widely used in construction, furniture and other structural applications. However, it is vulnerable to the actions of water, ultraviolet radiation and fungus, which affect its durability, especially in the open. Here, bamboo was treated with superheated steam in an attempt to improve the durability of bamboo scrimbers. The chemical composition, mechanical properties, dimensional stability, aging resistance, decay resistance and anti-mildew properties were investigated at different temperatures (160~200 °C). After superheated steam treatment, the relative contents of holocellulose and α-cellulose in bamboo decreased. The bending strength and short-beam shearing strength slightly decreased as the temperature was raised while the modulus was essentially retained. The aging resistance in terms of thickness swelling rate (≤9.38%) was substantially improved. The decay resistance reached to the level of Grade I and can be dramatically enhanced by elevating temperature. The anti-mildew properties were also improved. To take together, superheated steam treatment remarkably improves the resistance of bamboo scrimbers to water, ultraviolet radiation, rot fungi and mildew with some concomitant reduction in mechanical properties. The results will permit outdoor construction using bamboo scrimbers more resistant to environmental damage.
51Optimization of the Mechanical and Structural Performance of Bamboo by Microwave-Compression as a Function of Moisture Content.PubMed
Huixiang Wang, Rong Liu, Rui An, et al.
Materials (Basel). 2025 May 29;18(11):2551. doi: 10.3390/ma18112551.
Bamboo, a renewable resource, has broad applications in construction, furniture, and other sectors. However, its dimensional stability and mechanical properties under varying humidity conditions pose challenges. This study aims to investigate the effects of microwave-compression treatment on the mechanical properties, water resistance, and chemical composition of bamboo at various moisture contents, and to elucidate the mechanisms underlying these changes. In the experiment, bamboo samples with moisture contents of 10%, 30%, and 50% were subjected to microwave-compression, and their mechanical properties, water resistance, chemical composition, and microstructure were subsequently analyzed. The results indicate that bamboo with low moisture content (10%) exhibited the best modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR), while bamboo with higher moisture contents (30% and 50%) showed significant declines in mechanical properties, although dimensional stability improved. Chemical analysis revealed that microwave-compression treatment resulted in the reorganization of lignin and hemicellulose, enhancing the chemical stability of bamboo, while X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis indicated an increase in crystallinity at higher moisture contents. Overall, the study demonstrates that microwave-compression treatment can optimize the mechanical properties and dimensional stability of bamboo, particularly with moderate moisture contents. The results show that microwave-compression treatment can improve the structural performance of bamboo, especially under low-humidity conditions.
52Dimensionally stable and durable wood by lignin impregnation.PubMed
Weiqi Leng, Jing Wang, Sheng He, et al.
Int J Biol Macromol. 2024 May;268(Pt 2):131684. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.131684. Epub 2024 Apr 23.
Cracking, warping, and decaying stemming from wood's poor dimensional stability and durability are the most annoying issues of natural wood. There is an urgent need to address these issues, of which, sustainable and green chemical treatments are favorably welcomed. Herein, we developed a facile method through the incorporation of environmentally friendly biopolymer lignin into wood cells for wood dimensional stability and durability enhancement. Enzymatic hydrolysis lignin (EHL) was dissolved into various solvents followed by impregnation and drying to incorporate lignin into wood cells. Impregnation treatment was developed to incorporate into wood to improve its dimensional stability, durability, and micromechanics. The anti-swelling efficiency reached up to 99.4 %, the moisture absorption decreased down to 0.55 %, the mass loss after brown rot decay decreased to 7.22 %, and the cell wall elasticity as well as hardness increased 8.7 % and 10.3 %, respectively. Analyses acquired from scanning electron microscopy, fluorescent microscopy, and Raman imaging revealed that the EHL was successfully colonized in cell lumen as well as in cell walls, thus improved wood dimensional stability and durability. Moreover, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy confirmed EHL interaction with the cell wall components, thus the wood mechanical property was not impaired significantly, whereas nanoindentation data indicated even slight mechanical enhancement on the cell walls. This facile approach can improve the wood properties in multiple aspects and remarkably enhance the outdoor performance of modified wood products. In addition, using lignin as a natural modifying agent to improve wood performance will have a great positive impact on the environment.
53Preparation and Performance of Cement Mortar Reinforced by Modified Bamboo Fibers.PubMed
Yang Ban, Wei Zhi, Mingen Fei, et al.
Polymers (Basel). 2020 Nov 11;12(11):2650. doi: 10.3390/polym12112650.
This study aims to prepare bamboo-fiber-reinforced cement composites and provide a solution to the issue of poor interfacial adhesion between bamboo fibers and cement matrix. The original bamboo fibers were modified by three moderately low-cost and easy-to-handle treatments including glycerol, aluminate ester, and silane treatments. The performance of the modified bamboo-fiber-reinforced cement composites was evaluated by a series of mechanical and durability tests, including flexural and compressive strength, water absorption, chloride ion penetration, drying shrinkage, freeze-thaw resistance, and carbonization. In addition, the microstructures of composites were characterized using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The results showed that the composites reinforced with glycerol-modified bamboo fibers had 14% increased flexural strength and comparable compressive strength. From durability perspectives, all treatments showed similar performance in drying shrinkage, whereas aluminate ester treatment was the most effective in terms of impermeability, chloride resistance, freeze-thaw resistance, and carbonization. The results could provide insights to efficient and effective natural fiber treatment to enable better performance of natural-fiber-reinforced cement-based materials.
54Environmental Durability Enhancement of Natural Fibres Using Plastination: A Feasibility Investigation on Bamboo.PubMed
Daanvir K Dhir, Armin Rashidi, Grant Bogyo, et al.
Molecules. 2020 Jan 22;25(3):474. doi: 10.3390/molecules25030474.
Natural fibers are gaining wide attention due to their much lower carbon footprint and economic factors compared to synthetic fibers. The moisture affinity of these lignocellulosic fibres, however, is still one of the main challenges when using them, e.g., for outdoor applications, leading to fast degradation rates. Plastination is a technique originally used for the preservation of human and animal body organs for many years, by replacing the water and fat present in the tissues with a polymer. This article investigates the feasibility of adapting such plastination to bamboo natural fibres using the S-10 room-temperature technique in order to hinder their moisture absorption ability. The effect of plastination on the mechanical properties and residual moisture content of the bamboo natural fibre samples was evaluated. Energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray micro-computed tomography (Micro-CT) were employed to characterize the chemical composition and 3-dimensional morphology of the plastinated specimens. The results clearly show that, as plastination lessens the hydrophilic tendency of the bamboo fibres, it also decreases the residual moisture content and increases the tensile strength and stiffness of the fibers.
55Antimicrobial activity and chemical profile of wood vinegar from eucalyptus (Eucalyptus urophylla x Eucalyptus grandis - clone I144) and bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris).PubMed
Gil Sander Próspero Gama, Alexandre Santos Pimenta, Francisco Marlon Carneiro Feijó, et al.
World J Microbiol Biotechnol. 2023 May 8;39(7):186. doi: 10.1007/s11274-023-03628-x.
Microbial resistance to drugs is a public health problem; therefore, there is a search for alternatives to replace conventional products with natural agents. One of the potential antimicrobial agents is wood vinegar derived from the carbonization of lignocellulosic raw materials. The objectives of the present work were to evaluate the antibacterial and antifungal action of two kinds of wood vinegar (WV), one of Eucalyptus urograndis wood and another of Bambusa vulgaris biomass, and determine their chemical profile. The antimicrobial effect was assessed against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enteritidis, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus agalactiae, and Candida albicans. The minimum inhibitory concentration and the minimum bactericidal and fungicidal concentrations were determined. Micrographs of the microorganisms before and after exposure to both kinds of wood vinegar were obtained by scanning electron microscopy. The chemical profile of the eucalyptus and bamboo vinegar was carried out by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Both types of WV presented significant antimicrobial activity, with the bamboo one having a higher efficiency. Both studied pyroligneous extracts seem promising for developing natural antimicrobials due to their efficiency against pathogens. GC/MS analyses demonstrated that the chemical profiles of both kinds of WV were similar but with some significant differences. The major component of the eucalyptus vinegar was furfural (17.2%), while the bamboo WV was phenol (15.3%). Several compounds in both WVs have proven antimicrobial activity, such as acetic acid, furfural, phenol, cresols, guaiacol, and xylenols. Together, they are the major in the chemical composition of the organic fraction of both WVs. Bamboo vinegar had a more expressive content of organic acids. Micrographs of microorganisms taken after exposure to both kinds of wood vinegar displayed several cell modifications. The potential of both types of wood vinegar as a basis for natural antimicrobial products seems feasible due to their proven effect on inhibiting the microorganisms' growth assessed in this experiment.
56Effects of Accelerated Ageing by Humidity and Heat Cycles on the Quality of Bamboo.PubMed
Hao Jia, Lei Chen, Benhua Fei, et al.
Polymers (Basel). 2022 Sep 27;14(19):4052. doi: 10.3390/polym14194052.
The effect of humidity and heat environmental conditions on the durability of conventional bamboo materials is a pressing issue in the reserving phase of biomass materials. In this study, the relationship between the main physicochemical, pyrolytic, and mechanical properties of bamboo before and after ageing has been investigated. Exposure of engineered bamboo raw materials with moisture content up to 10% to alternating humidity and heat cycles (20 °C 98% RH-30 °C 64% RH-40 °C 30% RH) of ageing (HHT) causes degradation of the chemical polymer matrix. Byk Gardner 6840 color difference meter, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), compression intensity, thermogravimetric-infrared spectroscopy (TG-IR), and density changes are used to assess the quality of the material before and after ageing. No significant changes in the moisture content within the range of 6.12 ± 0.327 after two weeks of the engineered bamboo during wet thermal cyclic ageing were determined. However, there were significant differences in mass loss (7.75-9.93 g), cellulose crystallinity, chemical changes, compression strength, and pyrolytic properties. Differences in specimen colors were observed during 10 weeks of the accelerated humidity heat cycling ageing, and variations ranged from 3.75 to 20.08 and from 0.25 and 3.24, respectively. Reduced cellulose crystallinity (36.459-22.638%), axial compressive strength (63.07-88.09 MPa), and modulus of rupture (2409-4286 MPa) were found during aging, whereas deformation and ductility properties were improved. Both natural and humidity heat ageing improve thermal stability and peak pyrolysis rates (0.739-0.931; 0.731-0.797). Humidity heat cyclic ageing will assist in the design and risk assessment of warehousing environments for industrial applications.
57Bamboo stem ash as a sustainable cement replacement in lightweight foam mortar enhancing mechanical thermal and microstructural properties.PubMed
Md Azree Othuman Mydin, Nurul Zahirah Noor Azman, Paul O Awoyera, et al.
Sci Rep. 2025 Oct 6;15(1):34677. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-04447-w.
This study presents a novel approach to enhancing the properties of lightweight foam mortar (LFM) by utilizing bamboo stem ash (BSA) as a partial cement replacement. Unlike traditional supplemental cementitious materials (SCMs) like fly ash or silica fume, BSA provides a special blend of lightweight properties and a high silica concentration. Thus, the effect of BSA (in proportions of 0-25% and steps of 5%) on the mortars' fresh, hardened, microscale properties, such as workability, density, strength, durability, and microstructural characteristics, was explored. At 15% BSA replacement, the compressive strength reached 8.25 MPa at 28 days, 7% higher than the control mix (7.7 MPa). The study identifies 15% BSA as the optimal replacement level, striking a balance between mechanical strength, durability, and thermal insulation. Beyond 15%, increased porosity begins to reduce strength, while thermal resistance continues to improve. Thus, a 10-15% replacement range is recommended for applications requiring structural integrity and insulation. The density of the foam mortar decreased from 1000 kg/m for the control mix to 960 kg/m at 20% BSA replacement, improving the material's lightweight characteristics. Also, the porosity increased from 24.8% (control) to 30.2% (25% BSA), positively influencing thermal insulation properties. Thermal conductivity measurements indicated a reduction from 0.25 W/mK (control) to 0.18 W/mK at 25% BSA replacement, demonstrating improved thermal resistance. BSA incorporation improves the pore structure and fosters stronger interfacial bonding within the matrix, especially at 15% replacement, according to microstructural investigation using SEM. The water absorption rate increased slightly from 18.2% (control) to 21.6% (25% BSA), still within reasonable bounds for lightweight construction applications. As demonstrated by the mortars' notable performance, BSA may effectively replace OPC in LFM, improving its mechanical, thermal, and environmental qualities. With the results, BSA has shown potential for developing eco-friendly building materials and aiding in reducing carbon emissions in the built environment. These results show that BSA can be a green and practical substitute for OPC in lightweight building applications, especially for prefabricated panels, insulation layers, and non-load-bearing walls. Its ability to enhance mechanical strength while reducing thermal conductivity makes it a promising material for energy-efficient and sustainable building solutions.
58Hierarchical-Morphology Lignocellulosic Thermostat for High-Efficiency Thermal Management.PubMed
Yulong Duan, Zihe Chen, Wenhao Ji, et al.
ACS Nano. 2025 Sep 30;19(38):34110-34122. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.5c10436. Epub 2025 Sep 16.
Integrating thermal-regulating structures into energy-efficient construction materials in sustainable building design could effectively mitigate the increased global climate warming. Herein, we report a high-performance bio-based thermostat achieved through molecular engineering of hierarchically encapsulated inorganic phase-change materials (PCMs) as thermal regulators in the nanostructured lignocellulosic foam. In addition to high-compressive strength (≈20.3 MPa, more than nearly 20 times that of others), the lignocellulosic thermostat features high environmental durability under harsh conditions and also exhibits exceptional thermal-regulating ability for achieving >24.0° temperature differential as well as high fireproof performance (bearing up to 1300 °C) across a 1.0 cm thickness, serving as a dually tunable thermal thermostat during both day and night. The discards are fully biodegradable and could serve as effective fertilizer alternatives because of the incorporation of inorganic phosphorus substances. Additionally, we have verified the efficient recyclable process and demonstrated the good universality of this strategy with diverse bioresources such as wood, bamboo, rice, or corn stalks. This emerging thermostat technology offers a feasible solution for next-generation carbon-reduced building materials. It is economically viable and eco-friendly, significantly contributing to energy savings and fertilizer production through a closed-loop cycle.
59Review on Aging Behavior and Durability Enhancement of Bamboo Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites.PubMed
Sameeksha Shettigar, Mandya Channegowda Gowrishankar, Manjunath Shettar
Molecules. 2025 Jul 22;30(15):3062. doi: 10.3390/molecules30153062.
This review article focuses on the long-term durability challenges associated with bamboo fiber-reinforced polymer composites when subjected to various environmental aging conditions such as water immersion, hygrothermal fluctuations, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, soil burial, and refrigerated storage. The primary issue addressed is the degradation of mechanical and structural performance of bamboo fiber-reinforced polymer composites due to moisture absorption, fiber swelling, and fiber-matrix interface deterioration. To mitigate these aging effects, the study evaluates and compares multiple strategies, including chemical and physical fiber surface treatments, filler additions, and fiber hybridization, which aim to enhance moisture resistance and mechanical stability. These composites are relevant in automotive interiors, construction panels, building insulation, and consumer goods due to their eco-friendly nature and potential to replace conventional synthetic composites. This review is necessary to consolidate current knowledge, identify effective enhancement approaches, and guide the development of environmentally resilient bamboo fiber-reinforced polymer composites for real-world applications.
60Current and potential carbon stocks in Moso bamboo forests in China.PubMed
Pingheng Li, Guomo Zhou, Huaqiang Du, et al.
J Environ Manage. 2015 Jun 1;156:89-96. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.03.030. Epub 2015 Mar 27.
Bamboo forests provide important ecosystem services and play an important role in terrestrial carbon cycling. Of the approximately 500 bamboo species in China, Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) is the most important one in terms of distribution, timber value, and other economic values. In this study, we estimated current and potential carbon stocks in China's Moso bamboo forests and in their products. The results showed that Moso bamboo forests in China stored about 611.15 ± 142.31 Tg C, 75% of which was in the top 60 cm soil, 22% in the biomass of Moso bamboos, and 3% in the ground layer (i.e., bamboo litter, shrub, and herb layers). Moso bamboo products store 10.19 ± 2.54 Tg C per year. The potential carbon stocks reach 1331.4 ± 325.1 Tg C, while the potential C stored in products is 29.22 ± 7.31 Tg C a(-1). Our results indicate that Moso bamboo forests and products play a critical role in C sequestration. The information gained in this study will facilitate policy decisions concerning carbon sequestration and management of Moso bamboo forests in China.
61Spatiotemporal trend of carbon storage in China's bamboo industry, 1993-2018.PubMed
Xufang Zhang, Junyu Lu, Xufeng Zhang
J Environ Manage. 2022 Jul 15;314:114989. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.114989. Epub 2022 Apr 13.
To alleviate the greenhouse effect, increasing the carbon storage of forest and harvested wood products is an effective way. As one of the most important components of forest resources, bamboo plays an important role in carbon sequestration. China possesses the richest bamboo resources in the world. In this study, we developed a comprehensive carbon model including the supply chain from bamboo forest to final products to estimate the carbon pool for China's bamboo industry from 1993 to 2018. To examine the changes in carbon storage, we conducted a spatiotemporal analysis for 15 provinces employing a simple linear regression model. Additionally, a stochastic simulation was employed to test the parameter uncertainty in carbon estimation. Results show the carbon storage of China's bamboo industry has steadily improved, including both bamboo forest and products. In 2018, the carbon storage of bamboo vegetation, soil, and ground layer reached 448.30 TgC, 396.75 TgC, and 11.20 TgC, respectively. The carbon storage of bamboo products also increased gradually, with the storage and emission being 55.33 TgC and 1.70 TgC, respectively. The total carbon storage of China's bamboo industry in 2018 is 909.88 TgC. Moreover, the spatiotemporal analysis quantifies the annual change of the carbon storage for each province. It reveals the spatiotemporal change pattern of total bamboo carbon storage as similar to the bamboo forest. The provinces with more carbon storage tend to increase more rapidly per year. The bamboo industry is immensely significant for both the economy and the environment.
62Age effects of Moso bamboo on leaf isoprene emission characteristics.PubMed
Yandong Song, Chunju Peng, Qinjiao Wu, et al.
Front Plant Sci. 2023 Mar 7;14:1132717. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1132717. eCollection 2023.
Isoprene is a highly reactive volatile organic compound that significantly affects atmospheric oxidant capacity, regional air quality, and climate change. Moso bamboo (), a species widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in China, is a strong isoprene emitter with great potential for carbon sequestration. Carbon sequestration is negatively correlated with culm age; however, the effect of this correlation on isoprene emissions remains unknown. In this study, we investigated the photosynthetic and isoprene emission characteristics of Moso bamboo at different culm ages. The results showed that the age effect on isoprene emission was different from that on photosynthesis; the net photosynthesis rate (Pn) was the highest in young, followed by mature, and then old bamboo, whereas the isoprene emission rate (Iso) was the highest in young, followed by old, and then mature bamboo. Moreover, the percentage of carbon loss as isoprene emission (C-loss) during photosynthesis of old bamboo was 35% higher than that of mature bamboo under standard conditions (leaf temperature: 30°C; light intensity: 1000 µmol m s). Therefore, we strongly recommend considering the culm age when establishing an isoprene emission model of Moso bamboo. Additionally, because the Iso and C-loss of old bamboo were higher than those of mature bamboo, we suggest that attention should be paid to the management of bamboo age structure and timely felling of aged bamboo to reduce environmental risk.
63Responses of Soil Carbon and Microbial Residues to Degradation in Moso Bamboo Forest.PubMed
Shuhan Liu, Xuekun Cheng, Yulong Lv, et al.
Plants (Basel). 2024 May 31;13(11):1526. doi: 10.3390/plants13111526.
Moso bamboo () is known for its high capacity to sequester atmospheric carbon (C), which has a unique role to play in the fight against global warming. However, due to rising labor costs and falling bamboo prices, many Moso bamboo forests are shifting to an extensive management model without fertilization, resulting in gradual degradation of Moso bamboo forests. However, many Moso bamboo forests are being degraded due to rising labor costs and declining bamboo timber prices. To delineate the effect of degradation on soil microbial carbon sequestration, we instituted a rigorous analysis of Moso bamboo forests subjected to different degradation durations, namely: continuous management (CK), 5 years of degradation (D-5), and 10 years of degradation (D-10). Our inquiry encompassed soil strata at 0-20 cm and 20-40 cm, scrutinizing alterations in soil organic carbon(SOC), water-soluble carbon(WSOC), microbial carbon(MBC)and microbial residues. We discerned a positive correlation between degradation and augmented levels of SOC, WSOC, and MBC across both strata. Furthermore, degradation escalated concentrations of specific soil amino sugars and microbial residues. Intriguingly, extended degradation diminished the proportional contribution of microbial residuals to SOC, implying a possible decline in microbial activity longitudinally. These findings offer a detailed insight into microbial C processes within degraded bamboo ecosystems.
64Microbial mechanisms of carbon sequestration discrepancy between broadleaf and Moso bamboo forests.PubMed
Yaowen Xu, Jiejie Jiao
Front Microbiol. 2025 Jun 3;16:1580720. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2025.1580720. eCollection 2025.
In subtropical areas, broadleaf forests are being increasingly converted into Moso bamboo () forests. However, few studies have systematically compared soil organic carbon (SOC) between broadleaf and Moso bamboo forests. Therefore, we investigated SOC content and relative contributions of microbial and plant residues to SOC in broadleaf and Moso bamboo forests using biomarkers. The results show that the SOC content in Moso bamboo forest soil was 12.58% lower than that in adjacent broadleaf forest. Moreover, Moso bamboo forest soils also have less microbial-derived C but more plant-derived C compared with that in the broadleaf forest soil. The changes of microbial- and plant-derived C were mainly affected by soil properties. In particular, soil pH, ligninase/cellulase ratio, and mineral properties were the main factors regulating microbial-derived C, whereas mineral properties primarily controlled plant-derived C. Overall, our study reveals differences in C sequestration pathways between broadleaf and Moso bamboo forests, highlighting the potential to increase C storage through appropriate soil management, which provides a valuable reference for mitigating climate change.
65Bamboo construction materials: Carbon storage and potential to reduce associated CO emissions.PubMed
Xiaoxiao Xu, Peiyu Xu, Jianjun Zhu, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2022 Mar 25;814:152697. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152697. Epub 2021 Dec 30.
The construction industry is one of the largest contributors of CO emissions. To achieve the goal of carbon peaking by 2030 and carbon neutrality by 2060, China needs to develop carbon reduction pathways for the construction industry. Bamboo is believed to be one of the most appropriate candidates for afforestation to reduce CO concentration and alleviate the effects of climate change. It is also an ideal building material with high tensile and compressive strengths. However, the carbon emissions and storage of bamboo building materials have not been well understood. This study aims to quantify the CO emissions and carbon storage of bamboo building materials and to analyse the potential to reduce these carbon emissions. Results show that the planting phase contributes the largest amount of carbon uptake whilst the production phase contributes the largest amount of carbon emissions. 'Carbonisation' is found to be the production process with the highest carbon emissions, followed by 'antimould, anticorrosion and drying treatment' and 'glue application'. Three strategies that are useful in reducing carbon emissions are proposed and validated. After the implementation of the proposed strategies, the average and median amount of carbon emissions changed from 1291.63 and 1290.75 kg to 1088.36 and 1090.29 kg. Taking all phases into account, one cubic meter of bamboo assembled components can reduce 249.92 kg CO from the atmosphere. Compared to dimensioned lumber, engineered lumber, cement, steel, timber, hempcrete, bamboo building materials have the highest CO emissions and carbon storage. The carbon storage of bamboo assembled components per tonne is around 140 kg more than that of timber per tonne. This study is expected to assist not only researchers in understanding the carbon reduction potential of bamboo building materials but also practitioners in promoting bamboo building-based carbon reduction pathways.
66Life cycle assessment of bamboo products: Review and harmonization.PubMed
Jinlu Gan, Meiling Chen, Katherine Semple, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2022 Nov 25;849:157937. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157937. Epub 2022 Aug 8.
Bamboo is considered a promising solution to mitigate climate change because of its carbon sequestration capability and versatile applications. Life cycle assessment (LCA) has been used to evaluate the environmental performance of various bamboo products. This study compared the Global Warming Potential (GWP) values of bamboo products with those of the corresponding benchmark materials (e.g., steel, concrete, plastics) through a comprehensive literature review of relevant LCA studies. The results showed that bamboo products often lead to lower GWP values. In several other cases, we also observed significant variability in the comparison results due to a wide range of assumptions regarding bamboo cultivation, processing, product manufacturing, energy supply, and choices of the LCA database adopted by the reviewed studies. We analyzed the key modeling assumptions for each life cycle stage of bamboo products and established a harmonized inventory dataset to reduce the uncertainty in modeling the processed bamboo (as a raw material for subsequently manufacturing various products). Based on the harmonized dataset, we conducted a cradle-to-gate LCA and concluded that the major contributor to the overall GWP result was electricity consumption (and associated carbon intensity of energy generation) during bamboo processing. We also concluded that future research was needed to improve the transparency, consistency, and comprehensiveness of LCA studies on bamboo products.
67Applications, life cycle assessment, and circular economy of bamboo torrefaction for sustainability: A state-of-the-art review.PubMed
Wei-Hsin Chen, Pin-Chun Liang, Wei-Yi Wang, et al.
Bioresour Technol. 2025 Sep;431:132629. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2025.132629. Epub 2025 May 6.
This review comprehensively explores the characteristics and applications of torrefied bamboo. Bamboo has a high volatile matter (VM) content (73.9-93.0 %), which results in substantial liquid byproducts during torrefaction. The higher heating value (HHV) of biochar produced from wet torrefaction (WT) is greater than that made from dry torrefaction (DT). When the torrefaction severity factor is 8.7, the bamboo hydrochar's HHV from WT can achieve 29.3 MJ⋅kg, whereas bamboo biochar from DT only have 23.3 MJ⋅kg. Bamboo vinegar and tar, byproducts from bamboo torrefaction, are effective biopesticides and have diverse applications, including polyurethane coatings and insecticides. Life cycle assessments reveal that bamboo-based building materials can reduce carbon footprints by 46.2 % to 87.6 % compared to traditional construction materials. Furthermore, bamboo materials are highly beneficial for the circular economy and environmental sustainability. In summary, bamboo biochar's applications are extensive, and its derived products are commercially competitive and environmentally friendly.
68Spatiotemporal trends of carbon stock in wood and bamboo products in China during 1987-2020.PubMed
Luyang Zhang, Shuaikun Zhang, Dongdong Chen, et al.
Sci Rep. 2023 Sep 14;13(1):15194. doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-41007-6.
Harvested wood/bamboo products (HWP/HBP) constitute a large global carbon stock. However, the contribution of HBP to carbon stocks has been neglected in mixed wood and bamboo data, especially in China. Therefore, the production approach and the first-order decay method were used to estimate the spatiotemporal carbon stock change in HWP/HBP based on provincial production data from the China Forestry Statistical Yearbooks for 1987-2020. The results showed that China's total carbon stocks of HWP and HBP were 328.7 teragram carbon (TgC) and 129.7 TgC between 1987 and 2020. Of this, the HWP carbon stock was mainly sourced from three provinces across the north and south: Guangxi (60.8 TgC), Heilongjiang (37.2 TgC), and Fujian (24.2 TgC), and HBP carbon stock was mainly sourced from three southern provinces: Fujian (33.4 TgC), Guangxi (20.3 TgC), and Zhejiang (13.7 TgC). The proportion of the HBP carbon stock in the total carbon stock increased from 20% in 2010 to 28% in 2020, indicating that bamboo products play an important role in the accumulation of carbon stocks in China. The differences in contributions to spatiotemporal trends between the provinces provide more specific information to make precise decisions about forest management and carbon sequestration.
69The Effects of the Ecological Conservation Redline in China: A Case Study in Anji County.PubMed
Chao Zhang, Dayi Lin, Lixia Wang, et al.
Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022 Jun 23;19(13):7701. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19137701.
The Ecological Conservation Redline (ECR) of China plays an important role in avoiding ecological space occupancy and maintaining regional ecological security. Anji County in Zhejiang Province is one of the first regions to implement the ECR in China. This paper takes Anji County as an example to analyze the effects of ECR. To do this, we first set up two scenarios with the CLUE-S model: a normal land-use development scenario (NLDS) and an ECR implementation scenario (ECRS); then we compare the land use of 2010 and 2015 under NLDS and ECRS. Land use, ecosystem services value (ESV), landscape metrics, and ecological product outputs were compared between the entire county and the ECR areas. The results revealed the following: (1) From 2000 to 2015, the ecological land in Anji County decreased by 4.03%, while it decreased by 1.17% in the ECR areas. (2) In the ECR areas, there was less arable land and construction land of the ECRS than in the NLDS, which indicates the ECR impeded the expansion of construction land and arable land in the ECR areas. (3) The ECR areas account for 39% of Anji County but contribute more than 80% to the ESV of the whole county. During 2000-2015, the ESV of the entire county decreased while the ESV of the ECR areas increased. (4) From 2000 to 2015, whereas landscape fragmentation of the entire county increased, that of ECR areas decreased. (5) Since the ECR's implementation, Anji County has vigorously developed the bamboo industry, ecological agriculture, the tourism industry, and achieved rapid economic development via industrial restructuring and transformation. On the whole, the ECR has neither adversely affected land development nor economic development but instead has promoted the optimization of the land's spatial development pattern.
70Non-additive effects on biodegradation of moso bamboo litter- and broadleaf tree litter-leached dissolved organic matter mixtures in a subtropical forest of southern China.PubMed
Jia-Wen Xu, Zhi Zheng, Jing-Hao Ji, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2024 Mar 10;915:170104. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170104. Epub 2024 Jan 15.
Phyllostachys pubescens (moso bamboo) has extensively expanded to subtropical broadleaf forests. However, how moso bamboo expansion influences litter-leached dissolved organic matter (DOM) biodegradation is unclear. In this study, we collected fresh leaf litter of moso bamboo and 10 broadleaf tree species from a subtropical forest in southern China and extracted litter-leached dissolved organic carbon (DOC), dissolved total nitrogen (DTN), and dissolved total phosphorus (DTP). Then, using a 42-day incubation experiment, we measured litter-leached DOM biodegradation of the selected 11 species and assessed the relative mixing effects on biodegradation of bamboo litter- and broadleaf tree litter-leached DOM mixtures with volume mixing ratios of 1:3, 1:1, and 3:1. In the litter leachates, bamboo had lower DOC:DTN ratio, DOC:DTP ratio, and DOM aromaticity (i.e., lower SUVA and SUVA values) than most broadleaf tree species. Litter-leached DOM biodegradation did not differ among bamboo, Liquidambar formosana, Vernicia fordii, and Cyclobalanopsis glauca, but was greater for bamboo than for the other seven broadleaf tree species. Leaf litter-leached DOM biodegradation correlated negatively with DOC:DTN and DOC:DTP ratios, but exhibited no significant relationship with DOM aromaticity. Regardless of volume mixing ratios, antagonistic effects were observed when bamboo litter-leached DOM was mixed with broadleaf tree litter-leached DOM with comparable biodegradation, whereas synergistic effects occurred when bamboo litter-leached DOM was mixed with broadleaf tree litter-leached DOM with lower biodegradation. The relative mixing effects on DOM biodegradation increased linearly with elevated interspecific difference in litter-leached DOM biodegradation between bamboo and broadleaf tree species across the incubation periods. These findings indicate that moso bamboo expansion will substantially alter litter-leached DOM biodegradation by improving substrate quality and changing species interactions, and the magnitudes of such changing trends are dependent on the native tree litter-leached DOM biodegradation in subtropical broadleaf forests.
71Progress in the ecology and conservation of giant pandas.PubMed
Fuwen Wei, Ronald Swaisgood, Yibo Hu, et al.
Conserv Biol. 2015 Dec;29(6):1497-507. doi: 10.1111/cobi.12582. Epub 2015 Sep 15.
Giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) conservation is a possible success story in the making. If extinction of this iconic endangered species can be avoided, the species will become a showcase program for the Chinese government and its collaborators. We reviewed the major advancements in ecological science for the giant panda, examining how these advancements have contributed to panda conservation. Pandas' morphological and behavioral adaptations to a diet of bamboo, which bear strong influence on movement ecology, have been well studied, providing knowledge to guide management actions ranging from reserve design to climate change mitigation. Foraging ecology has also provided essential information used in the creation of landscape models of panda habitat. Because habitat loss and fragmentation are major drivers of the panda population decline, efforts have been made to help identify core habitat areas, establish where habitat corridors are needed, and prioritize areas for protection and restoration. Thus, habitat models have provided guidance for the Chinese governments' creation of 67 protected areas. Behavioral research has revealed a complex and efficient communication system and documented the need for protection of habitat that serves as a communication platform for bringing the sexes together for mating. Further research shows that den sites in old-growth forests may be a limiting resource, indicating potential value in providing alternative den sites for rearing offspring. Advancements in molecular ecology have been revolutionary and have been applied to population census, determining population structure and genetic diversity, evaluating connectivity following habitat fragmentation, and understanding dispersal patterns. These advancements form a foundation for increasing the application of adaptive management approaches to move panda conservation forward more rapidly. Although the Chinese government has made great progress in setting aside protected areas, future emphasis will be improved management of pandas and their habitat.
72Integrated framework for dynamic conservation of bamboo forest in giant panda habitat under climate change.PubMed
Xiaotong Shang, Weirui Qin, Biao Yang, et al.
J Environ Manage. 2024 Sep;368:122052. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.122052. Epub 2024 Aug 11.
Climate change presents formidable challenges to forest biodiversity and carbon storage. Bamboo forests will be affected particularly in Southwest China's mountainous regions. Bamboo serves as not only a key food resource and habitat for giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca but also a potential carbon sink due to its rapid energy-to-matter conversion capability. We employ the MaxEnt model to project the distribution shifts of 20 giant panda foraged bamboo species in Sichuan Province under future climate scenarios, utilizing climate data of 30m resolution. Based on the changes in the diversity and distribution area of bamboo communities caused by climate change, the changing of giant pandas' food resources and the carbon storage of bamboo forests were calculated. The results indicated that the area of bamboo communities is projected to expand by 17.94%-60.88% more than now by the end of the 21st century. We analyzed the energy balance between the dietary needs of giant pandas and the energy provided by bamboo. We predicted that bamboo communities from 2000 to 2150 could support the continuous growth of the giant panda population (6533 wild individuals by 2140-2150 in an ideal state in Sichuan province). However, the species diversity and carbon storage of bamboo forests face out-of-sync fluctuations, both temporally and spatially. This is a critical issue for subalpine forest ecosystem management under climate change. Therefore, we propose a dynamic conservation management framework for giant panda habitats across spatial and temporal scales. This framework aims to facilitate the adaptation of subalpine forest ecosystems to climate change. This innovative approach, which integrates climate change into the conservation strategy for endangered species, contributes a conservation perspective to global climate action, highlighting the interconnectedness of biodiversity preservation and climate mitigation.
73Assessing the policy issues relating to the use of bamboo in the construction industry in Nigeria.PubMed
I P Okokpujie, E T Akinlabi, O O Fayomi
Heliyon. 2020 May 23;6(5):e04042. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04042. eCollection 2020 May.
The Nigerian government has promoted industrial development based on the area of policy implementation. The development of policy and the use of bamboo in the construction company is very significant because of the role of bamboo cultivation in reducing environmental pollution. Bamboo, in its existence, applies to the environment in absorbing carbon dioxide of about 35% and releases to the environment a high amount of oxygen. This carbon dioxide absorbs by bamboo reduces the ozone layer depletion in the aspect of climate change. Another significance of bamboo is that it creates an environment that reduces the light intensity to protect against ultraviolet emissions. The use of Bamboo is considerable in the construction industry and also as useful reinforcement material. This research discusses the effects of policy issues relating to the use of bamboo in the construction industry in Nigeria. And also, study the significance of bamboo implementation in terms of bamboo used for biomass as a source for bio-energy, furniture, and building development. Also, how bamboo cultivation will affect economic growth in Nigeria. This study also discusses the three policy dimensions as it pertains to implementing bamboo policy in Nigeria and suggested ways of developing bamboo policy for proper regulations.
74Bamboos for weaving and relevant traditional knowledge in Sansui, Southwest China.PubMed
Binsheng Luo, Selena Ahmed, Chunlin Long
J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2020 Oct 20;16(1):63. doi: 10.1186/s13002-020-00418-9.
BACKGROUND: Traditional bamboo weaving has been practiced for centuries in Sansui, a county dominated by the Miao people, in Guizhou province of Southwest China. Sansui bamboo weaving represents an intangible cultural heritage as defined by UNESCO, but, like many other traditional handicrafts in China, it has suffered a downfall in this period of rapid development. Sansui bamboo weaving is now experiencing a renaissance due to the joint efforts of the local government, bamboo weaving companies, and individual bamboo weavers. However, what bamboo species have supported the traditional bamboo weaving in Sansui keeps unknown up to now. The traditional knowledge and technology associated with bamboo weaving have not been reported. In addition, the resumption of the local bamboo industry may provide some valuable experiences for other downfallen traditional handicrafts or local communities. Thus, an ethnobotanical study on Sansui bamboo weaving has been carried out. METHODS: This study mainly used ethnobotanical methods, including key informant interviews and participatory observations. Different stakeholders were selected by applying the snowball method as our key informants including 6 officials, 37 bamboo weavers, and 17 bamboo and bamboo weaving product merchants. We also went into the local weavers' houses to visit the whole weaving process. The bamboo and dye plant species for bamboo weaving were identified by taxonomists and referring to online databases available. RESULTS: Based on field investigations, 17 bamboo species used for weaving were recorded. Different bamboo species were woven for different purposes based on their own characters. Phyllostachys heteroclada is the most popular species locally. Bamboo strips are usually dyed by using Platycarya strobilacea and Rubia cordifolia to be made for different images. In recent years, the size, functions, and materials of local bamboo weaving crafts as well as their market mode have been changed to adapt to new development trends and to cater to the market. In addition, the cooperation among bamboo weavers, bamboo companies, and household workshops has provided great support to the local bamboo industry and to reboot the economy of the local community. Some suggestions for the sustainable economic development of Sansui bamboo weaving and other Chinese traditional handicrafts are proposed. CONCLUSION: In the present study, the bamboo weaving-associated traditional knowledge was collected by means of ethnobotanical methods. The recent renaissance of the bamboo weaving business in Sansui can be attributed both to government support and the innovations of the bamboo weaving industry itself. The developing mode ("Internet + intangible cultural heritage + poverty alleviation"), which combined the internet, poverty alleviation, and intangible cultural heritage, is valid and worth being promoted.
75Integrating bamboo forests into the carbon markets: Insights from China.PubMed
Chunyu Pan, Anil Shrestha, Chong Li, et al.
J Environ Manage. 2025 Oct;393:127203. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.127203. Epub 2025 Sep 9.
In the course of fighting climate change, bamboo forests are increasingly recognized as a modern nature-based solution. Developing bamboo-based carbon projects can bring triple-bottom-line benefits to livelihood, climate, and industry, but they can also face various barriers. Based on a qualitative research framework, this paper discusses the key challenges and lessons learned from China. It then describes some of the innovative approaches that have been adopted to overcome these challenges. We identified four overarching challenges: economic, market, technical, and social. First, the rising labor costs and declining market demand for bamboo products are critical economic challenges, leading to high upfront project development costs and increasingly lower financial viability of bamboo-based investments. Second, the low transaction demand and the shifts in the national offset market have contributed to the market challenges. Moreover, many bamboo-rich regions face technical difficulties, such as lacking forestry infrastructure and skilled bamboo-specific carbon experts. Fourth, social challenges exist regarding the information asymmetry between farmers and project developers and the difficulties encountered when managing forest land-use rights in China. Inspired by several recent innovations, this paper recommends a green financing model integrating large-scale, professional forest management and the essential downstream bamboo industry development via strategies such as concessional loans and carbon-linked subsidies. There is a need for internationally standardized methodologies for bamboo forest management that incorporate advanced carbon accounting for selective harvesting and product carbon pools, enhancing credibility and scalability in compliance and voluntary markets. Such developments are needed if global policymakers, especially from some of the bamboo-based economies of the Global South, are to transform bamboo resources effectively for climate change mitigation, environmental protection, and local livelihood enhancement.
76Sustainable regulation of construction.PubMed
Health Estate. 2000 Nov;54(10):30-1.
The seminar examined the role building codes and regulations can have in promoting a more sustainable approach to construction, particularly through their application to non-industrial building materials. A range of building materials such as straw, bamboo, rammed earth, adobe, and cob (a mixture of clay and chopped straw) were described and illustrated by slides to show their building potential. The current codes have a prime concern to protect the health and safety of people from the built environment. They have been developed almost exclusively for mainstream industrial materials and methods of construction, which makes them difficult to use with alternative, indigenous, or non-industrial building materials, even though those materials may be considered more sustainable. The argument was put forward that with only one-third of the world population living in modern industrial buildings today, it is not sustainable to re-house the remaining rapidly expanding population in high technology dwellings. Many of the low technology building materials and methods now used by the majority of people in the world need only incremental improvement to be equal or superior to many of their industrial replacements. Since these can be more sustainable methods of building, there needs to be an acceptance of the use of alternative materials, particularly in the developing parts of the world, where they are being rejected for less sustainable industrial methods. However, many codes make it difficult to use non-industrial materials; indeed, many of the industrial materials would not meet the demands that must be now met if they were now being introduced as new materials. Consequently, there is a need to develop codes to facilitate the use of a wider range of materials than in current use, and research is needed to assist this development. Sustainable regulation should take into account the full range of real impacts that materials and systems have in areas such as resource use and depletion, toxicity of the processes that produce them, and their potential for re-use and recyclability.