1. 微塑料的基本特性与人体暴露途径
1.1 微塑料的定义与环境分布特征
微塑料（Microplastics, MPs）是指尺寸小于5毫米的塑料颗粒，其中包含更小的纳米塑料（Nanoplastics, NPs），其尺寸通常小于1微米 1。这些塑料碎片可以是初级的，即工业生产时即为小颗粒状（如磨砂洗面奶中的微珠），也可以是次级的，由大型塑料制品（如塑料袋、渔网、瓶子）在物理、化学和生物作用下逐渐降解、破碎而形成 23。微塑料的形态多样，主要包括碎片（fragments）、纤维（fibers）、颗粒（pellets/granules）以及薄膜（films）等 456。在化学组成上，常见的微塑料聚合物类型包括聚乙烯（PE）、聚丙烯（PP）、聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯（PET）、聚苯乙烯（PS）和聚氯乙烯（PVC）等 345。
微塑料已在全球范围内广泛分布于各种环境中，其普遍存在性令人担忧。
- 水体环境：海洋是微塑料研究的早期重点区域，微塑料广泛存在于海洋表层水体、沉积物、海滩乃至深海中 27。淡水系统如河流、湖泊、湿地同样未能幸免，例如湿地被认为是微塑料污染的易感区域 48。废水处理厂虽然能去除部分微塑料，但仍有大量微塑料随处理后的水体进入自然环境，或通过污泥施用进入土壤 8。
- 土壤环境：陆地生态系统中的微塑料含量甚至可能超过海洋生态系统 910。农业活动（如农膜覆盖、污水污泥施用）、交通运输以及垃圾填埋是土壤微塑料的主要来源 911。在土壤中，微塑料会影响土壤理化性质、植物生长、动物活动以及微生物群落 910。
- 大气环境：大气是微塑料全球传输不可或缺的介质，空气中悬浮微塑料（SAMPs）和沉降微塑料（DAMPs）的存在已得到证实 5。室内外空气中均检测到微塑料，其中室内空气中的微塑料含量可能更高，这与衣物纤维脱落和家居用品磨损有关 6。大气微塑料可以通过干湿沉降进入水体和土壤 512。
- 生物体内：鉴于微塑料在环境中的普遍存在，它们不可避免地进入各种生物体内，包括水生生物、陆生动物乃至人类 21314。研究已在人类的血液、尿液、粪便、肺组织、乳汁、精液和胎盘中检测到微塑料，证实了人体暴露的广泛性 1415。
总体而言，微塑料已成为一种普遍存在的新兴污染物，其在全球环境中的无处不在，使得人类暴露于微塑料的环境中成为常态 21314。
1.2 人体暴露微塑料的主要途径
人类暴露于微塑料的途径多种多样，主要包括经口摄入、经呼吸道吸入以及经皮肤接触 16。
- 经口摄入：这是人类暴露于微塑料最主要的途径之一。
- 经呼吸道吸入：空气中的微塑料是人类暴露的另一个重要途径。
- 经皮肤接触：尽管不如摄入和吸入途径受关注，但皮肤接触也是微塑料暴露的一种方式。
- 化妆品与个人护理产品：某些去角质产品、牙膏等曾含有作为磨砂剂的微珠，这些微珠最终可能进入水体环境，虽然目前许多国家已禁止其使用。
- 纺织品：合成纤维（如涤纶、尼龙）衣物会释放微塑料纤维，并可通过皮肤接触或吸入进入人体 16。
除了上述主要途径，一些特殊场景也对微塑料的人体暴露贡献显著：
- 医疗塑料用品：在医疗环境中，塑料制品广泛应用于各种医疗器械和包装。在某些情况下，这些医疗用品在生产、使用或降解过程中可能释放微塑料，对患者构成潜在暴露风险 22。
- 口罩降解：COVID-19疫情期间，一次性医用口罩的大量使用和不当处置，导致其成为环境中的重要微塑料来源 23。废弃口罩在环境中降解会释放大量微塑料纤维，其中废弃口罩释放微塑料的能力（1246.62 ± 403.50 颗粒/片）远高于新口罩（183.00 ± 78.42 颗粒/片） 23。这些来自口罩的微塑料可以通过吸入或摄入进入人体，引发慢性炎症、肉芽肿或纤维化、DNA损伤、细胞损伤、氧化应激以及细胞因子分泌等不良健康问题 2324。有研究表明，与海水和河水相比，土壤中口罩释放的微塑料量更大，单只口罩在土壤中可释放25141 ± 3543个颗粒 25。
总体而言，人类暴露于微塑料是普遍存在的，且暴露途径多样，从我们每天的饮食、饮水到呼吸的空气，以及某些特殊场景，都存在微塑料进入人体的可能性 192627。
2. 微塑料对人体的直接毒性作用机制
2.1 物理损伤机制
微塑料（MPs）进入人体后，其物理特性是引发毒性作用的首要机制之一。这些颗粒，特别是纳米级塑料（NPs），能够通过机械刺激、细胞内吞作用导致细胞膜损伤，并在器官中长期滞留引发炎症反应。
机械刺激与组织损伤：微塑料颗粒的物理存在本身就可能对生物组织造成机械性损伤。例如，聚苯乙烯微塑料（PS-MPs）暴露可导致鸡脑组织出现脑出血、微血栓形成以及浦肯野细胞丢失等病理变化 28。这些物理损伤进一步诱导炎症细胞浸润，并激活细胞焦亡（pyroptosis）通路，如ASC-NLRP3-GSDMD信号通路，从而加剧脑损伤 28。在心脏组织中，PS-MPs同样能导致严重的病理损伤和超微结构改变，诱导心肌细胞焦亡和炎症细胞浸润 29。此外，肠道微塑料可能会机械磨损肠道细胞，破坏肠道屏障，影响营养物质的吸收和免疫功能 30。
细胞内吞与膜损伤：纳米塑料因其极小的尺寸，能够被细胞有效内吞。研究表明，不同表面功能化的聚苯乙烯纳米塑料（PS-NPs），包括原始PS、羧基功能化PS（PS-COOH）和氨基功能化PS（PS-NH），均能被巨噬细胞（RAW264.7）吸收内吞 31。内吞后的纳米塑料可能在细胞内积累，干扰细胞器功能。特别是，PS-NH显示出最高的细胞毒性，其主要机制之一是诱导细胞膜损伤 31。这种膜损伤可能通过影响细胞的完整性和通透性，进而引发细胞功能障碍甚至死亡。
长期滞留与炎症反应：微塑料一旦进入生物体，由于其非生物降解性，往往难以被有效清除，从而在各种器官中长期滞留。这种长期存在会持续对周围组织产生刺激，引发慢性炎症反应。例如，PS-MPs暴露不仅导致鸡心脏组织中的炎症细胞浸润，还通过NF-κB-NLRP3-GSDMD轴诱发炎症反应，导致NLRP3、Caspase-1、IL-1β、IL-18等炎症因子过度表达 29。在脑组织中，脑出血引起的炎症细胞强烈浸润，也与微塑料的物理损伤效应密切相关 28。这些炎症反应是机体对异物入侵的防御机制，但长期或过度激活则可能导致组织损伤、功能障碍，并与多种慢性疾病的发生发展相关。
综上所述，微塑料颗粒的物理特性使其能够通过机械损伤组织、引发细胞内吞导致膜损伤以及在器官中长期滞留诱导慢性炎症，这些都是其对人体健康产生直接毒性作用的关键机制。
2.2 化学毒性释放机制
微塑料（MPs）除了其本身的物理特性可能造成损伤外，其内在和外在的化学物质释放是引发人体健康危害的另一关键机制。这主要包括塑料生产过程中添加的化学物质（如增塑剂、阻燃剂等）以及微塑料在环境中吸附的各类污染物（如重金属、持久性有机污染物，POPs）。这些化学物质通过溶出、生物富集等方式进入生物体，进而引发内分泌干扰、氧化应激和基因毒性等多种毒性效应。
塑料添加剂的迁移与毒性：
- 邻苯二甲酸酯（Phthalates, PAEs）：邻苯二甲酸酯是塑料中最常用的一类增塑剂，广泛存在于各种塑料产品中，例如聚氯乙烯（PVC）材料。它们并非与聚合物基质通过化学键结合，因此极易从塑料中渗出并迁移到环境中3233。研究表明，邻苯二甲酸酯是内分泌干扰物（EDCs），能模拟或干扰体内激素的正常功能3234。暴露于邻苯二甲酸酯与男性生殖健康问题（如精液质量下降、生殖道畸形）、女性子宫内膜异位症、儿童哮喘、肥胖和神经发育障碍等多种不良健康结局相关333536。例如，在男性中，邻苯二甲酸酯可导致睾酮水平下降、精子质量受损；在女性中，可能影响卵巢功能和生育能力3337。
- 双酚A（Bisphenol A, BPA）：双酚A是另一种常见的塑料添加剂，主要用于生产聚碳酸酯塑料和环氧树脂，这些材料广泛用于食品和饮料包装、水瓶等产品中38。BPA同样是一种内分泌干扰物，其结构与雌激素相似，可以干扰内源性激素的合成、分泌、转运、结合、作用或消除34。研究表明，BPA暴露与卵巢癌、乳腺癌、代谢紊乱（如2型糖尿病、胰岛素抵抗、肥胖）、心血管疾病以及生殖和神经发育问题有关3539。高暴露量BPA与卵巢癌患者体内BPA水平升高、氧化应激标记物增加及基因表达异常相关39。
- 阻燃剂（Flame Retardants）：有机磷酸酯（OPEs）是一类常用的阻燃剂和增塑剂，广泛应用于各类消费品中40。与邻苯二甲酸酯类似，OPEs也能够从产品中浸出，并在环境中普遍存在40。研究表明，OPEs暴露与儿童的神经发育、生殖健康结局（如生育能力下降、早产）以及呼吸系统疾病（如哮喘）和过敏性疾病相关3540。多溴联苯醚（PBDEs）是另一类阻燃剂，也与儿童认知发育和智商下降以及甲状腺功能改变有关35。
吸附污染物的协同毒性效应：
- 重金属：微塑料表面积大，具有很强的吸附能力，可以吸附环境中的重金属离子41。当微塑料进入生物体后，这些吸附的重金属可能会解吸并释放到生物体内，从而加重其毒性。例如，聚苯乙烯微塑料与镉（Cd）的复合暴露被发现对雄性生殖系统具有协同毒性，导致睾丸结构损伤、精子发生异常和性激素合成障碍42。这种协同作用可能通过抑制Keap1-Nrf2通路、诱导脂质过氧化和铁死亡来实现42。
- 持久性有机污染物（POPs）：微塑料同样能吸附环境中的多种POPs，如多氯联苯（PCBs）、多环芳烃（PAHs）和农药等4143。这些POPs通常具有脂溶性、生物积累性和远距离传输能力。微塑料作为载体将POPs输送到生物体内，可能导致这些毒物在体内富集，进而引发更为复杂的毒性效应。多氯联苯（PCBs）已被证实与成人2型糖尿病、子宫内膜异位症、支气管炎、心血管疾病及某些癌症（如非霍奇金淋巴瘤、乳腺癌）相关35。
毒性机制：
- 内分泌干扰：许多塑料添加剂，如邻苯二甲酸酯和双酚A，因其能模仿或拮抗内源性激素的作用，被归类为内分泌干扰物34。它们可以扰乱机体激素平衡，影响生殖、发育、代谢和神经系统功能333537。
- 氧化应激：微塑料及其释放的化学物质能够诱导细胞产生过量的活性氧（ROS），导致氧化应激。氧化应激会损伤细胞膜、蛋白质和DNA，从而引发炎症、细胞凋亡甚至细胞癌变4344。例如，聚苯乙烯微塑料可以提升肝脏细胞中的ROS水平4546。
- 基因毒性：一些塑料添加剂和吸附的污染物被证实具有基因毒性，能够直接或间接损伤DNA，导致基因突变、染色体畸变等，从而增加癌症的风险4344。
- 蛋白错误折叠与脂质膜失稳：微塑料和纳米塑料还可以与生物大分子（如蛋白质、脂质、核酸）相互作用，导致蛋白质错误折叠、脂质膜失稳，从而破坏细胞结构和功能43。
综上所述，微塑料通过其携带和释放的化学毒性物质，经溶出、生物富集等途径进入人体，并通过内分泌干扰、氧化应激、基因毒性、蛋白质/脂质损伤等机制，对人体健康产生广泛而深远的危害。
3. 微塑料对不同系统的健康影响表现
3.1 呼吸系统损伤
呼吸系统是微塑料进入人体的关键门户之一，特别是微塑料和纳米塑料可以通过吸入直接到达肺部。近年来，研究已在人类肺组织、鼻腔甚至支气管中检测到微塑料的存在，证实了呼吸暴露的普遍性47。这些吸入的塑料颗粒可能对肺部造成多方面的损害，导致肺泡炎症、肺功能下降，并与哮喘、慢性阻塞性肺病（COPD）等呼吸系统疾病的发生发展密切相关474849。
肺泡炎症与氧化应激：
微塑料颗粒进入肺部后，会被肺部的免疫细胞（如巨噬细胞）识别并吞噬，进而触发炎症反应。聚苯乙烯纳米塑料（PS-NPs）暴露已被证实能够诱导肺部炎症50。具体来说，PS-NPs能够通过整合素α5β1介导的内吞作用进入肺上皮细胞，导致线粒体Ca2+失调和去极化，进而产生大量活性氧（ROS）50。ROS的积累引发氧化损伤，进一步加剧炎症反应，最终可能导致DNA损伤和细胞坏死，这些都与肺部疾病的发生有关50。此外，聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯（PET）纳米塑料也能增加人肺上皮A549细胞内的ROS生成并导致DNA损伤51。肺功能下降与COPD样损伤：
长期或环境剂量的微塑料暴露已被证明会损害肺功能。例如，小鼠长期吸入聚苯乙烯微塑料（PS-MPs）会导致肺组织中胶原纤维增加，肺屏障通透性降低，并最终导致肺功能下降47。研究通过多维度评估发现，吸入PS-NPs可导致小鼠出现慢性阻塞性肺病（COPD）样肺损伤49。这种损伤表现为局部和全身性的氧化应激、炎症反应以及蛋白酶-抗蛋白酶失衡，最终导致呼吸功能下降和COPD样病变49。其机制可能涉及线粒体功能障碍和内质网应激，以及铁死亡在COPD样肺损伤发展中的重要作用49。与哮喘和COPD等疾病的关联：
微塑料暴露不仅是肺损伤的原因，还可能与哮喘和COPD等现有呼吸系统疾病的恶化有关。研究发现，在哮喘和COPD患者的鼻上皮细胞中，微塑料纤维的刺激会引起不同于健康对照组的反应，提示这些患者的呼吸道上皮细胞对微塑料暴露更敏感，可能加重Th2炎症、应激反应调节及癌变风险52。此外，PMID为36933884的研究表明，PS-NPs暴露通过激活HIF-1α/HO-1信号通路导致支气管上皮细胞发生铁死亡，最终引发肺损伤48。另有研究指出，吸入PS-MPs可导致大鼠肺部出现炎症细胞浸润、肺间隔增厚和肺泡扩张，并诱导肺巨噬细胞细胞外基质（ECM）降解，这与肺气肿的发生发展相关53。纳米塑料穿透肺泡屏障的潜在危害：
纳米塑料由于其极小的尺寸（<100 nm），具有更高的迁移性和穿透能力，能够深入肺部更远的区域。有研究利用肺泡和支气管上皮细胞的体外模型评估了纳米塑料的危害，结果显示虽然没有急性细胞毒性，但纳米塑料可能影响细胞特异性功能，例如肺泡细胞中表面活性蛋白的减少，这些蛋白对于维持肺功能至关重要54。纳米塑料还可能通过血气屏障进入血液循环，进而影响其他远端器官。这种穿透能力使得纳米塑料的潜在健康风险更为复杂和严重，需要更深入的研究来阐明其长期效应。
3.2 消化系统与代谢紊乱
消化系统是人体暴露于微塑料最直接且最主要的途径之一，微塑料的摄入对消化系统健康的影响已引起广泛关注。肠道微塑料暴露能够导致黏膜屏障破坏、肠道菌群失衡，进而引发炎症性肠病（IBD）、代谢综合征（如肥胖、糖尿病）等一系列健康问题。
肠道黏膜屏障的破坏：
微塑料颗粒的物理刺激和其携带的化学物质可能直接损伤肠道黏膜，导致肠道屏障功能受损。研究表明，聚苯乙烯微塑料（PS-MP）能减少小鼠肠道黏液分泌，并损伤肠道屏障功能 5556。聚苯乙烯纳米塑料（PS-NPs）或微塑料（PS-MPs）可影响大鼠肠道屏障功能，表现为肠道紧密连接蛋白表达的改变 57。肠道屏障的完整性对于阻止有害物质（如细菌毒素）进入血液循环至关重要。屏障受损会增加肠道通透性，进而引发全身性炎症反应。此外，微塑料可能导致肠道上皮细胞的氧化损伤和炎症反应 56。在断奶仔猪模型中，聚苯乙烯微塑料污染的饲料会增加仔猪腹泻的发生率，损害肠道屏障功能，并导致肠道氧化应激和炎症 58。肠道菌群失衡：
微塑料被证明可以显著改变肠道微生物群落的组成和多样性，即引起肠道菌群失调。小鼠暴露于聚苯乙烯微塑料后，肠道菌群多样性发生改变，具体表现为放线菌门（Actinobacteria）的显著减少 55。同时，有益菌（如Faecalibaculum和Akkermansia）的丰度降低，而致病菌（如Tuzzerella）的丰度增加 59。这种菌群失衡不仅影响肠道局部环境，还可能通过“肠-脑轴”等途径影响全身健康。例如，纳米塑料暴露会改变肠道菌群组成，导致Alloprevotella和Ileibacterium比例升高，而Dubosiella比例下降，这种菌群失调进一步加剧了纳米塑料引起的炎症性肝损伤 60。炎症性肠病（IBD）风险：
肠道屏障损伤和菌群失衡是炎症性肠病发生发展的重要驱动因素 6162。多项体外和体内研究发现，微塑料诱导的肠道屏障功能障碍、肠道微生物组失衡和代谢异常最终可导致炎症性肠病 6364。微塑料暴露对患有胃肠道疾病的个体造成的伤害更大 63。例如，聚丙烯（PP）砧板释放的微塑料可损害肠道屏障功能并诱导炎症，而聚乙烯（PE）砧板释放的微塑料则影响肠道菌群和肠道代谢 65。代谢紊乱与代谢综合征：
微塑料暴露与代谢紊乱之间存在密切关联，包括肥胖、胰岛素抵抗和糖尿病等。- 肥胖与脂肪代谢异常：微塑料及其吸附的污染物（如邻苯二甲酸酯、双酚A）具有内分泌干扰作用，可能影响脂肪细胞的分化和脂质代谢。混合微纳米塑料（PMs）暴露可增加3T3-L1脂肪细胞的活力、分化和脂肪生成，并影响脂肪和葡萄糖代谢 66。聚苯乙烯纳米塑料（PS-NPs）会抑制米色脂肪功能，加剧高脂饮食小鼠的代谢紊乱，表现为能量消耗减少、脂肪量增加、肝脂肪变性、胰岛素敏感性下降和葡萄糖稳态失衡 67。
- 糖尿病与胰岛素抵抗：微纳米塑料（MNPs）通过氧化应激、全身炎症和内分泌干扰来破坏葡萄糖代谢、胰岛素信号传导和脂质稳态 68。PMs暴露能降低3T3-L1细胞的葡萄糖摄取并抑制胰岛素信号通路相关蛋白（如IRS1, PI3K, AKT, GLUT4）的表达 66。在斑马鱼幼虫中，PMs暴露会生物累积于肠道和胰腺组织，降低葡萄糖摄取，并增加体重和血糖水平 66。这些研究表明，长期低剂量微纳米塑料暴露可能导致代谢紊乱，增加糖尿病风险 68。
- 代谢通路改变：聚苯乙烯微塑料暴露可影响小鼠肠道菌群的代谢通路，导致氨基酸代谢和胆汁酸代谢紊乱，从而引发代谢障碍 55。
与结直肠癌（CRC）的关联：
最新的流行病学研究首次揭示了粪便中微塑料浓度升高与结直肠癌风险之间可能存在关联。一项病例对照研究发现，结直肠癌患者粪便中的微塑料中位数浓度显著高于健康对照组（62个/克干重 vs 43个/克干重）。最高暴露四分位数的个体患结直肠癌的调整优势比是对照组的11.3倍，表明微塑料暴露与结直肠癌风险之间存在非线性剂量-反应关系。这种关联在女性以及经常食用辛辣或高脂肪食物的个体中尤为明显 69。
综上所述，微塑料对消化系统的影响是多方面且深远的，从物理损伤肠道屏障到化学干扰肠道菌群和代谢通路，最终可能导致炎症性肠病、代谢综合征乃至结直肠癌等严重健康后果。
3.3 生殖与发育毒性
微塑料对人类生殖系统和发育过程的潜在危害已成为当前研究的热点，其影响贯穿生殖健康和胚胎发育的多个阶段，从配子形成到胎儿生长都可能受到微塑料的负面干扰。
对生殖系统的直接损伤：
- 睾丸生精障碍与精子质量下降：多项研究表明，微塑料可以损害男性生殖系统。例如，聚苯乙烯微塑料（PS-MPs）暴露可导致小鼠睾丸组织结构受损，精子数量和活力下降，甚至诱发睾丸炎症和氧化应激 7071。在海洋青鳉鱼（Oryzias melastigma）的实验中，环境相关浓度的微塑料可导致性腺发育延迟，并影响精子质量 72。微塑料可能通过破坏睾丸组织结构、干扰生殖内分泌（如睾酮水平）和诱导氧化应激来影响精子的生成和功能 70。
- 卵巢功能衰退与卵泡发育异常：女性生殖系统同样易受微塑料的影响。研究发现，聚苯乙烯微塑料（PS-MPs）可导致大鼠卵巢颗粒细胞的焦亡和凋亡，从而减少生长卵泡数量，降低抗缪勒氏管激素（AMH）水平，进而损害卵巢储备功能 7374。哺乳期小鼠暴露于微塑料，可导致其后代雌性小鼠的卵母细胞成熟、受精率及胚胎发育能力下降 7576。这种影响可能与氧化应激、线粒体功能障碍和DNA损伤有关 75。
- 激素水平干扰：微塑料及其吸附的化学物质，如邻苯二甲酸酯和双酚A，具有内分泌干扰作用，能够影响性激素的合成和分泌。例如，海洋青鳉鱼暴露于微塑料后，雌鱼体内的17β-雌二醇（E2）和睾酮（T）水平显著下降，同时下丘脑-垂体-性腺（HPG）轴相关基因的转录活性也受到抑制 72。微塑料还可能增强某些内分泌干扰物（如17α-乙炔雌二醇）的雌激素效应，进一步加剧激素失衡 77。此外，微塑料还被发现在胎盘样本中与脐带血中雄激素和糖皮质激素水平的改变相关，提示其可能影响胎儿的内分泌平衡 78。
对胚胎发育的影响：
- 胎盘传递与胎儿暴露：微塑料和纳米塑料已被证实能够穿过胎盘屏障，进入胎儿体内，从而直接影响胎儿的发育 7079。胎盘作为母胎界面的关键器官，其微塑料负荷与胎儿激素水平改变存在显著关联 78。纳米塑料由于其尺寸更小，可能更容易穿透胎盘，进而对胚胎造成更深远的影响。
- 流产、早产和低出生体重：纳米塑料暴露已被证实与妊娠期小鼠的流产风险增加有关。研究发现，聚苯乙烯纳米塑料（PS-NPs）会激活自噬并抑制滋养层细胞的迁移、侵袭和囊泡形成，这些过程对于胚胎植入和胎盘发育至关重要，其受损可能导致流产 80。此外，母体暴露于微塑料还可导致子代小鼠出生体重和出生后体重的下降 75。
- 跨代效应：微塑料的生殖毒性并非仅限于暴露代，还可能通过跨代传递影响后代的健康。例如，母体在妊娠和哺乳期暴露于微塑料，其子代小鼠的卵母细胞成熟率、受精率和胚胎发育均显著下降 75。哺乳期暴露于微塑料还会导致子代雄性小鼠精子数量和活力的显著下降，并通过影响生殖系统发育和表观遗传修饰相关的通路，对F1代雄性生殖健康造成威胁 76。这种跨代传递的危害令人担忧，表明微塑料对生殖健康的影响可能具有长期性和累积性 70。
作用机制：
- 氧化应激与炎症：微塑料暴露诱导的氧化应激和炎症反应是其导致生殖和发育毒性的核心机制之一 7071。氧化应激可损伤配子DNA、线粒体功能，并导致细胞凋亡。
- 内分泌干扰：微塑料及其释放的添加剂（如邻苯二甲酸酯、双酚A）作为内分泌干扰物，通过模拟或拮抗内源性激素，扰乱性激素平衡，进而影响配子发生、受精、胚胎植入和胎儿发育 7081。
- 表观遗传调控：微塑料暴露可能通过影响DNA甲基化和组蛋白修饰等表观遗传机制，导致基因表达改变，进而影响生殖细胞和胚胎发育，甚至产生跨代效应 7076。
- 细胞自噬异常：纳米塑料已被发现能够激活细胞自噬，并促进SOX2的自噬降解，进而抑制ROCK1介导的滋养层细胞迁移和侵袭，从而诱导流产 80。
综上所述，微塑料对生殖与发育的毒性作用是多方面、多层次的，涉及配子形成、激素平衡、胚胎发育等关键环节，并通过氧化应激、内分泌干扰和表观遗传调控等机制，对人类的生育能力和后代健康构成潜在威胁。
3.4 神经与心血管系统影响
微塑料（MPs）和纳米塑料（NPs）对人类神经系统和心血管系统的潜在影响日益受到关注。这些微小颗粒可以通过多种途径进入人体，并通过复杂的机制对这两个关键系统造成损害，导致神经炎症、认知功能下降以及动脉粥样硬化、血栓形成等心血管疾病。
3.4.1 神经系统影响
神经炎症与血脑屏障破坏：
微塑料和纳米塑料，特别是纳米级颗粒，被认为能够穿透血脑屏障（BBB），直接进入大脑，引发神经炎症。研究表明，微塑料可能通过扰乱氧化和炎症平衡、改变神经递质以及影响神经传导相关关键酶来导致神经毒性 82。聚苯乙烯微塑料（PS-MPs）被发现可在小鼠脑部，特别是海马体中被检测到，并引起神经炎症 83。纳米塑料，由于其尺寸更小，可能更容易穿透血脑屏障，对大脑造成更严重的损害 82。一项研究发现，口服30-50 nm的聚苯乙烯纳米塑料（PSNPs）可进入小鼠脑组织，导致小胶质细胞活化，并伴随认知功能障碍 84。小胶质细胞的激活是神经炎症的关键标志，提示纳米塑料可能通过引发神经炎症来损害神经功能 848586。此外，聚苯乙烯微塑料还被发现通过诱导小胶质细胞焦亡加剧阿尔茨海默病（AD）的认知障碍进程，进一步凸显其在神经系统疾病发病机制中的作用 86。“肠-脑轴”的介导作用：
肠道是微塑料进入人体的首要门户之一，而肠道菌群失衡在微塑料引起的神经毒性中扮演着重要角色。微塑料可以破坏肠道屏障，改变肠道微生物组的构成，从而影响“肠-脑轴”的正常功能 878889。例如，聚乙烯微塑料（LDPE-MPs）或氧化聚乙烯微塑料（Ox-LDPE-MPs）口服暴露28天后，小鼠表现出行为改变、肠道和血脑屏障受损，同时伴随脑部和肠道的氧化应激和炎症反应，导致胆碱能突触信号通路中断和认知功能障碍 88。研究表明，脆弱的肠道（如肠道Nrf2缺陷小鼠）在聚苯乙烯纳米塑料（PS-NPs）暴露下表现出更严重的神经毒性，这与肠道菌群失调以及IL-17C介导的炎症反应通过血液进入大脑有关 90。此外，肠道菌群失调还可以通过促炎细胞因子、神经毒素或迷走神经通路影响大脑，进一步加剧神经炎症和认知障碍 8389。认知功能下降与行为改变：
多项动物研究已证实微塑料暴露可导致认知功能障碍和行为异常。小鼠口服聚苯乙烯微塑料八周后，其学习和记忆行为受损，表现出即早基因水平下降、突触谷氨酸AMPA受体异常增强以及神经炎症加剧 83。长期低剂量聚苯乙烯纳米塑料（PS-NPs）暴露（24周）可导致大鼠出现异常神经行为和杏仁核损伤 91。妊娠期和哺乳期暴露于纳米塑料也会对子代大鼠的神经发育产生负面影响，导致行为异常和空间记忆缺陷 92。即使是通过呼吸道吸入微塑料，也可能导致认知功能下降。例如，小鼠吸入聚苯乙烯微塑料（5 µm）60天后，虽然微塑料未在大脑中积累，但认知功能受损，这可能与肺部菌群产生的脂多糖（LPS）介导的肺-脑轴炎症反应有关，通过激活小胶质细胞的M1极化进而影响大脑 93。与神经退行性疾病的潜在关联：
微塑料和纳米塑料的慢性暴露可能与神经退行性疾病（如阿尔茨海默病和帕金森病）的发生发展共享病理生理途径 94。例如，聚苯乙烯微塑料可诱导小胶质细胞焦亡，加剧阿尔茨海默病的认知障碍 86。微塑料可能通过激活脑内常驻免疫细胞、氧化应激、血脑屏障破坏、线粒体功能障碍和神经元损伤等机制，导致神经炎症和疾病进展 94。
3.4.2 心血管系统影响
动脉粥样硬化与斑块形成：
微塑料和纳米塑料（MNPs）已被认为是心血管疾病的一个新兴风险因素 959697。直接证据表明，微塑料可在人类动脉粥样硬化斑块中检测到。一项前瞻性多中心研究对颈动脉内膜切除术患者的切除斑块进行了分析，发现58.4%的患者斑块中含有聚乙烯，12.1%的患者斑块中含有聚氯乙烯 98。电子显微镜观察到斑块巨噬细胞中存在可见的、边缘不规则的异物颗粒 98。更重要的是，斑块中检测到微塑料的患者，其在34个月的随访期内发生心肌梗死、中风或全因死亡的复合终点事件的风险显著增高（风险比4.53） 959698。这强烈提示微塑料可能直接参与动脉粥样硬化的病理过程。血栓形成与心血管事件：
除了动脉粥样硬化，微塑料也可能与血栓形成有关。微塑料和纳米塑料可在血栓中检测到可测量水平，并且似乎优先在血管病变区域积累 96。一项研究在接受心脏手术的患者的围心包、心外膜脂肪组织、心肌、左心耳以及术前和术后静脉血样本中检测到多种微塑料，包括聚甲基丙烯酸甲酯，提示微塑料可能存在于心脏和周围组织中 99。细胞损伤与炎症反应：
在分子和细胞层面，微塑料和纳米塑料可能通过多种机制影响心血管健康。它们已被证明可以诱导氧化应激、血小板聚集、细胞衰老以及内皮细胞和免疫细胞中的炎症反应 9697。聚苯乙烯纳米塑料（PS-NPs）可加剧载脂蛋白E基因敲除（ApoE-/-）小鼠的动脉粥样硬化，表现为动脉僵硬度增加和动脉粥样硬化斑块形成，其机制可能涉及PS-NPs激活动脉中的M1型巨噬细胞吞噬作用，并上调巨噬细胞受体MARCO的表达。此外，PS-NPs还可扰乱脂质代谢，增加长链酰基肉碱（LCACs）水平，而LCACs又可反过来加剧PS-NPs诱导的动脉粥样硬化 100。直接心脏毒性：
微塑料对心脏的直接毒性包括心率异常、心功能受损、心包水肿和心肌纤维化 97。这些影响可能是由于微塑料在心脏组织中的积累以及其引发的局部炎症和氧化应激造成的。
综上所述，微塑料对神经系统和心血管系统的影响是显著且多方面的。它们不仅能通过血脑屏障和肠-脑轴机制引发神经炎症和认知功能障碍，还可能直接导致或加剧动脉粥样硬化和血栓形成等心血管疾病，对人类健康构成严重威胁。
4. 高风险人群的健康易感性分析
4.1 儿童与胎儿
儿童和胎儿因其独特的生理和行为特征，对微塑料暴露表现出显著更高的易感性。发育敏感期是机体器官系统快速发育和成熟的关键窗口期，在此期间，即使是低剂量的环境污染物暴露也可能产生长期的、不可逆转的健康影响。微塑料对儿童和胎儿的影响主要通过胎盘传递、母乳暴露以及儿童特有的行为习惯导致累积暴露，进而对其神经发育、免疫系统成熟及其他生理功能产生负面影响。
胎儿期暴露：胎盘传递与早期影响
微塑料已被证实能够穿过胎盘屏障，直接进入胎儿体内，从而对胎儿的生长发育造成影响 22101。研究表明，在人类胎盘中广泛存在微塑料，其中聚氯乙烯（PVC）、聚丙烯（PP）和聚丁二酸丁二醇酯（PBS）是主要的聚合物类型，且大部分微塑料的尺寸小于100微米 102。更有研究在母体血液、胎膜、脐带、羊水和脐带血中均检测到微塑料的存在，其中脐带的微塑料丰度最高 103。纳米塑料由于其尺寸更小，具有更高的迁移性，更容易穿透胎盘屏障，直接影响胚胎发育 104。胎儿暴露于微塑料的潜在后果包括：
- 生长发育迟缓：动物实验表明，母体暴露于聚苯乙烯纳米塑料（PS-NPs）会显著降低胎儿体重，并导致胎盘和胎儿代谢紊乱 104。
- 生殖和发育毒性：微塑料的胎盘传递可能干扰胎儿的内分泌系统，影响生殖器官的发育和功能 101105。
- 早产与并发症：胎盘、羊水和胎粪中存在的微塑料引发了对胚胎发育干扰的担忧，可能导致先兆子痫、死产、早产和自发性流产 105。
- 肝功能损害：胎盘微塑料暴露与脐带血中肝酶水平的改变有关，提示对胎儿肝功能可能产生影响。研究发现，胎盘中较高水平的PVC与碱性磷酸酶（ALP）升高显著相关，PP与丙氨酸转氨酶（ALT）和天冬氨酸转氨酶（AST）呈正相关，而PP和总微塑料负荷与γ-谷氨酰转肽酶（GGT）升高密切相关 106。
婴儿期暴露：母乳与奶粉喂养
新生儿在出生后持续暴露于微塑料，不仅通过母乳摄入，还通过奶粉和塑料喂养用品。母乳、牛奶和婴儿奶粉中均已发现微塑料，塑料奶瓶和母乳储存袋等产品也是新生儿持续暴露的来源 105。此外，婴儿配方奶粉在塑料容器中制备和储存，以及使用塑料奶瓶喂养，也可能成为微塑料的重要暴露源 22。儿童期暴露：行为习惯与神经发育影响
儿童由于其独特的生活方式和行为习惯（如手-口接触、在地上玩耍、摄入更多的食物和水），其微塑料累积暴露量可能高于成人。微塑料暴露对儿童健康的担忧尤其集中在神经发育方面。- 注意力缺陷多动障碍（ADHD）样行为：一项研究发现，终生暴露于23纳米聚苯乙烯纳米塑料的小鼠表现出ADHD样行为特征，包括多动、增加冒险行为以及运动学习和执行功能受损 107。
- 认知功能受损：研究已在儿童尿液中检测到微塑料（PA、PP、PVC等），且尿液中微塑料水平与儿童工作记忆表现下降和注意力不集中风险增加相关 108。
- 行为问题：在学龄儿童中，尿液中微塑料（包括PA、PP、PVC）的含量增加与情绪问题、品行问题、多动症和同伴关系问题的较高评分呈正相关，而亲社会行为则随微塑料浓度的增加而下降 109。
- 神经发育与基因表达：纳米塑料暴露可能导致大脑中与ADHD和癫痫相关的基因和突触蛋白表达改变，甚至加速脑衰老 107。
免疫系统成熟与长期影响
儿童和胎儿的免疫系统尚未完全成熟，对环境毒物的敏感性更高。微塑料及其携带的化学物质（如双酚A、邻苯二甲酸酯）作为内分泌干扰物，可能影响儿童的免疫系统功能，甚至与某些癌症的发生发展相关 110。儿童期的微塑料暴露可能对免疫系统成熟产生长期影响。
综上所述，儿童和胎儿是微塑料健康风险中最脆弱的群体。微塑料通过胎盘、母乳以及儿童特有的暴露途径，对其神经、免疫、生殖等多个系统的正常发育构成潜在威胁，可能导致一系列短期和长期的健康问题。
4.2 职业暴露群体
塑料生产、回收及相关产业的工人是微塑料及其相关化学品高浓度暴露的高风险群体。他们在原料处理、生产加工、废弃物管理等环节中，长期接触大量的微塑料颗粒、纤维以及塑料中添加的各类化学物质。这种职业性暴露往往远高于普通公众的暴露水平，可能导致一系列职业性疾病，包括呼吸系统疾病、癌症、生殖损伤以及其他健康问题 111112。
高暴露环境与暴露途径：
塑料行业的工人面临着从塑料原料（如树脂颗粒）到成品生产，再到废弃塑料回收处理的整个生命周期中的微塑料暴露。这些暴露主要通过以下途径发生：职业性疾病风险：
- 呼吸系统疾病：长期吸入高浓度的微塑料粉尘和纤维，是塑料产业工人面临的主要健康风险之一 20114。这些颗粒可能在肺部沉积，引发肺泡炎症、纤维化，甚至导致慢性阻塞性肺病（COPD）、哮喘以及尘肺病样改变。有研究指出，塑料纤维和颗粒的吸入可能导致呼吸道和间质炎症反应，引起呼吸困难 114。
- 癌症风险：塑料生产过程中使用的某些化学物质被认为是致癌物或潜在致癌物。例如，聚氯乙烯（PVC）生产工人长期暴露于氯乙烯单体，是肝血管肉瘤等癌症的高风险人群。此外，塑料中的添加剂，如某些邻苯二甲酸酯和阻燃剂，也可能具有致癌性 111。针对废塑料回收工人的研究发现，二（2-乙基己基）邻苯二甲酸酯（DEHP）暴露与氧化应激和DNA损伤（如尿中8-羟基-2'-脱氧鸟苷水平升高）相关，这提示了潜在的基因毒性和癌症风险 113。
- 生殖损伤：塑料生产和回收过程中常用的添加剂，特别是邻苯二甲酸酯（PAEs）和双酚A（BPA），是已知的内分泌干扰物，对生殖系统具有显著毒性 111115。
- 其他健康问题：职业性微塑料暴露可能与多种健康问题相关，尽管具体证据仍在不断积累中 112。例如，对四溴双酚A（TBBPA）的风险评估表明，来自电子设备的暴露不太可能引起毒理学上的担忧，但研究仍需关注职业暴露情况 117。
暴露剂量-健康效应关系：
职业暴露环境下，微塑料和化学添加剂的暴露剂量通常远高于环境暴露。这种高剂量暴露使得健康效应更为显著和直接。例如，废塑料回收工人尿液中DEHP代谢物的水平显著高于普通人群，其体内氧化应激和DNA损伤的指标也更高 113。这表明，随着暴露剂量的增加，健康风险也相应提高。因此，对职业暴露群体的研究对于理解微塑料的剂量-效应关系，以及建立安全的职业暴露限值具有重要意义。
综上所述，塑料生产、回收及相关产业工人是微塑料健康风险中最受威胁的群体之一。他们的职业性暴露环境复杂，暴露剂量高，导致多种职业性疾病，包括严重的呼吸系统疾病、癌症和生殖系统损伤。加强职业防护、改进生产工艺、减少有害化学品使用以及实施严格的健康监测，是保护这一高风险群体健康的关键。
4.3 环境不公正背景下的脆弱人群
在全球范围内，塑料污染的负面影响并非均匀分布，而是呈现出显著的环境不公正特征。低收入国家和地区，以及高收入国家中经济欠发达或少数民族聚居的“邻近社区”（fenceline communities），因塑料垃圾管理不善（如露天焚烧、不规范填埋）而面临更高的微塑料暴露风险。这种不公正的分配导致这些脆弱人群在呼吸系统疾病、癌症以及其他健康问题上承受了不成比例的超额负担 118119。
塑料废物转移与高暴露风险：
全球塑料废物贸易模式加剧了环境不公正问题。每年有大量的塑料废弃物从高收入国家出口到低收入国家，这些国家往往缺乏健全的废弃物管理基础设施和严格的环境法规 118。废弃塑料在这些地区常常通过露天堆放、简易填埋或露天焚烧的方式处理。- 垃圾填埋场与污染：不规范的垃圾填埋场是微塑料和各种有毒化学物质向土壤、地下水和空气释放的重要源头。周边居民，特别是那些生活在垃圾填埋场附近的低收入社区，长期暴露于微塑料颗粒、浸出液中的化学物质以及恶臭气体中。
- 露天焚烧的危害：露天焚烧塑料废弃物是许多低收入国家常见的处理方式。这种方式会释放出大量的有毒气体、颗粒物（包括微塑料）和持久性有机污染物（如二噁英、呋喃）进入大气，严重污染周边空气，并最终沉降到土壤和水体中。这些污染物对呼吸系统、神经系统和内分泌系统都构成严重威胁 118。
健康风险的超额负担：
环境不公正背景下的脆弱人群，因其长期处于高污染环境中，导致多种健康问题的高发：- 呼吸系统疾病：露天焚烧产生的细颗粒物和微塑料纤维可深入肺部，引发或加剧哮喘、慢性支气管炎、慢性阻塞性肺病（COPD）等呼吸道疾病。对“邻近社区”居民的研究表明，他们面临着更高的早产、低出生体重、哮喘和COPD风险 118。
- 癌症：塑料生产和废弃物处理过程中释放的许多化学物质（如氯乙烯单体、多溴联苯醚、邻苯二甲酸酯等）已被证实具有致癌性。高暴露人群，如塑料生产工人及其邻近居民，罹患白血病、淋巴瘤、肝血管肉瘤、脑癌、乳腺癌和肺癌的风险增加 118。
- 生殖和发育问题：塑料中含有的内分泌干扰物（如双酚A、邻苯二甲酸酯）可对生殖系统和胎儿发育造成负面影响，导致早产、低出生体重、生殖器官畸形和神经发育障碍等问题。这些问题在脆弱人群中可能更为普遍 118。
- 其他疾病：除了上述主要疾病，环境不公正社区的居民还可能面临心血管疾病、肾脏疾病和神经毒性损伤等风险，这些都与塑料及其化学品的暴露有关 118。
社会经济因素与健康不平等：
环境不公正的根源在于社会经济和政治权力的不平等。低收入和少数民族社区往往缺乏政治影响力，难以抵制污染性产业或废弃物处理设施在其社区内设立。同时，这些社区居民通常也缺乏获得高质量医疗保健和营养食物的资源，使得他们在面对环境健康风险时更加脆弱 119。例如，一项关于室内灰尘中微塑料的国际研究表明，社会经济因素和年龄是决定家庭灰尘中微塑料剂量及其相关健康结果的主要变量 120。另一项关于鱼类胃肠道微塑料发生率的研究也发现，低收入经济体的鱼类胃肠道中微塑料的发生率最高（8.08 P/gt），远高于高收入经济体（1.45 P/gt），这间接反映了不同收入水平地区环境污染和暴露水平的差异 121。
综上所述，微塑料污染的环境不公正现象，使得全球范围内最脆弱的人群承担了不成比例的健康负担。解决这一问题不仅需要关注塑料污染的科学防控，更需要从社会公正和公共健康政策层面，保障所有人群，特别是低收入国家和地区居民的健康权益，减少其不平等的环境暴露风险。
5. 微塑料健康风险研究的挑战与不确定性
5.1 检测技术与数据局限性
尽管微塑料对人类健康的潜在危害日益受到关注，但当前微塑料健康风险研究仍面临诸多挑战，其中检测技术和数据局限性是关键瓶颈。这主要体现在微塑料在生物样本中精准检测的困难、小粒径颗粒识别的复杂性以及现有研究中暴露剂量评估的不确定性，这些都严重制约了我们对微塑料实际健康影响的全面理解。
生物样本中微塑料的精准检测难点：
在复杂生物基质（如血液、组织、粪便、尿液等）中准确检测和量化微塑料是一项艰巨的任务。生物样本中富含有机物，这些有机物可能干扰微塑料的分离、鉴定和量化过程。现有的分析方法通常包括样本消化、密度分离、过滤、显微观察以及光谱分析（如傅里叶变换红外光谱 [FTIR]、拉曼光谱 [Raman]）等步骤。然而，这些方法在实际应用中存在诸多挑战：- 污染控制：微塑料无处不在，实验环境、试剂、器皿乃至空气中的微塑料都可能对样本造成污染，导致假阳性结果。为了获得可靠数据，必须实施严格的污染控制措施，例如在超净台操作、使用不含塑料的器皿和高纯度试剂等 122123124。
- 背景值扣除：即便采取了严格的污染控制，仍难以完全避免背景污染。因此，需要通过空白对照实验来评估和扣除背景污染，这使得数据处理更为复杂 125。
- 小粒径颗粒的识别与量化：对于尺寸小于1微米甚至几十纳米的纳米塑料（NPs），其检测难度呈指数级增加。传统的显微和光谱技术在识别如此小的颗粒时分辨率有限。目前，检测纳米塑料需要更先进的技术，例如单颗粒电感耦合等离子体质谱（SP-ICP-MS）结合金纳米颗粒标记方法，用于聚苯乙烯纳米塑料的定量，但这仅限于特定聚合物类型且操作复杂 126。此外，聚合物的降解产物——环状或线性寡聚物，也被认为是微塑料和纳米塑料暴露的潜在指示性标志物，但其分析方法仍在发展中 127。
- 聚合物类型的多样性：环境中微塑料的聚合物类型繁多，缺乏统一的、能够同时识别所有聚合物的分析方法。不同的分析技术对特定聚合物的检测效率和灵敏度不同，增加了全面表征的难度 124。
暴露剂量评估的不确定性：
现有研究中，微塑料暴露剂量的评估存在显著的不确定性，这导致环境水平与体内实际浓度之间存在较大差距，并影响了毒性评估结果的可靠性。- 环境浓度与体内积累的不匹配：尽管环境中的微塑料丰度数据不断增加，但准确评估人类实际摄入或吸入的微塑料剂量仍是难题。环境监测数据往往难以直接转化为个体暴露量，因为生物利用度、摄入途径和人体生理差异等因素都会影响实际进入体内的微塑料量。
- 实验研究与实际暴露的脱节：大多数体外和体内毒理学研究倾向于使用远高于环境实际浓度的微塑料暴露剂量，以便观察到显著的毒性效应 128。这种高剂量暴露可能无法真实反映人类在日常环境中长期低剂量暴露的实际影响。此外，实验中常用的微塑料通常是标准化的球形聚苯乙烯微球，这与环境中形状、大小和化学组成高度异质性的微塑料存在显著差异 128。
- 缺乏标准化方法：目前缺乏统一的微塑料分析和暴露评估方法。这导致不同研究之间的数据可比性差，难以进行综合性风险评估。例如，对于粒径范围、形状、颜色和聚合物组成的描述，以及数据呈现方式都缺乏标准化 129130。
- 毒性数据质量和相关性的限制：评估大气微塑料风险的研究指出，由于对微塑料特性与毒性效应之间相对关系的机制理解不足，以及毒性数据的质量和相关性有限，导致大气微塑料的风险评估存在不确定性，甚至可能被低估 131。
这些检测技术和数据局限性共同构成了微塑料健康风险研究的重大挑战。为了更准确地评估微塑料对人类健康的真实影响，亟需开发更灵敏、更准确、更标准化的检测方法，并加强环境暴露与体内积累的关联研究，以弥合当前知识鸿沟。
5.2 长期效应与跨代传递
当前微塑料健康风险研究面临的另一个主要挑战是其长期效应与跨代传递机制的复杂性和不确定性。现有的大多数研究集中于短期暴露实验，这导致了对微塑料长期低剂量暴露的人群流行病学数据的严重缺乏，且微塑料通过表观遗传学机制影响后代健康的具体作用尚不明确。
短期暴露研究的局限性：
目前关于微塑料毒理学效应的研究多为短期暴露实验，通常在数天至数周内进行，且往往采用相对较高的微塑料浓度以诱导可观测的生物学效应 132。例如，许多体外细胞实验和急性动物毒性研究，其暴露时间短、剂量高。然而，人类和自然界中的微塑料暴露是一个长期、持续且通常是低剂量的过程。短期高剂量暴露实验的结果，可能无法完全模拟或预测长期低剂量暴露对健康的真实影响。例如，有研究表明，需要进行更多研究来评估微塑料/纳米塑料在最低浓度和长期持续暴露下的影响 132133。长期低剂量暴露流行病学数据的缺乏：
由于微塑料作为一种新兴污染物被广泛关注的时间相对较短，关于其对人群长期健康影响的大规模、前瞻性流行病学研究数据严重不足。这使得我们难以评估微塑料长期低剂量暴露与慢性疾病（如癌症、心血管疾病、神经退行性疾病）发病率之间的因果关系。缺乏这些数据，公共卫生政策的制定和风险评估都将面临挑战。此外，要理解微塑料的毒物代谢动力学（包括吸收、分布、代谢和排泄）以及其在体内的长期累积模式，也需要长期的跟踪研究 134。跨代传递的表观遗传机制不明确：
微塑料和纳米塑料不仅可能影响暴露个体的健康，还可能通过遗传或表观遗传机制将其负面效应传递给后代，即产生“跨代效应”（transgenerational effects）。- 表观遗传修饰：表观遗传学是指在不改变DNA序列的前提下，基因表达的可遗传性改变。主要包括DNA甲基化、组蛋白修饰和非编码RNA等。越来越多的证据表明，微塑料可以诱导这些表观遗传修饰，从而影响基因表达和生物体的生理功能 70135136。例如，在桡足类动物中，纳米塑料（NPs）和海洋酸化共同暴露可导致跨代生殖损伤，并通过特定基因的差异甲基化模式来介导 135。类似地，微塑料纤维（MPFs）在大型蚤（Daphnia magna）中也能通过DNA甲基化改变导致跨代适应性受损 136。
- 父系遗传的重要性：以往研究多关注母体暴露对后代的影响，但最新观点强调了父系遗传在微塑料/纳米塑料诱导的跨代影响中的重要性 137。研究表明，父代暴露于微塑料/纳米塑料后，其生殖细胞的遗传物质可能发生表观遗传改变，进而传递给后代，影响后代的健康状况 70137。例如，在小鼠模型中，哺乳期暴露于聚苯乙烯微塑料（PS-MPs）可导致F1代雄性后代精子数量和活力显著下降，且其睾丸转录组分析揭示了生殖系统发育和表观遗传修饰相关的通路被富集 76。
- 机制的复杂性与未知：尽管动物研究已初步揭示了微塑料诱导的表观遗传改变及其对后代健康的潜在影响 70，但具体涉及哪些基因、何种表观遗传修饰类型、以及这些改变如何精确地导致特定表型，其机制仍不明确。此外，不同类型、尺寸、形状和化学组成的微塑料，以及不同的暴露途径和剂量，可能诱导不同的表观遗传效应，这增加了研究的复杂性。
综上所述，微塑料长期效应和跨代传递的研究是一个充满挑战但至关重要的领域。未来需要开展更长期的、大规模的人群流行病学研究，并深入探索微塑料通过表观遗传学机制影响后代健康的具体分子通路，以全面评估其对人类健康的深远影响。
5.3 纳米塑料的潜在危害
纳米塑料（Nanoplastics, NPs），通常指尺寸小于1微米的塑料颗粒，因其独特的物理化学特性，被认为是微塑料（MPs）中危害性更大、研究更具挑战性的部分。与微塑料相比，纳米塑料具有更高的迁移性、更大的比表面积以及更强的生物活性，可能引发更为复杂和严重的毒性效应，但目前相关研究仍处于起步阶段，存在诸多不确定性 138139140。
高迁移性与跨越生物屏障：
纳米塑料最显著的特征之一是其极高的迁移能力。由于粒径极小，纳米塑料能够轻易地穿透多种生物屏障，包括肠道屏障、血脑屏障、胎盘屏障以及血-睾屏障等 138141142143。- 穿透血脑屏障：研究表明，环境中的纳米塑料可以通过消化道摄入、呼吸道吸入或皮肤接触等途径进入人体，然后通过血液循环和神经通路转移并累积在大脑中 141142144。聚苯乙烯纳米塑料（PS-NPs）可穿透紧密的内皮细胞连接，通过内吞作用和巨胞饮作用进入内皮细胞，最终累积在小鼠大脑中 144。一旦进入大脑，纳米塑料可能引发氧化应激、炎症反应、线粒体功能障碍、神经递质紊乱和神经元丢失，从而导致神经退行性病变和神经发育异常 139141。
- 胎盘传递：纳米塑料还可穿过胎盘屏障，直接影响胎儿的发育。研究已在人类胎盘中检测到纳米塑料，提示其可能对胚胎发育产生负面影响 70143。例如，聚苯乙烯纳米塑料（PS-NPs）胚胎暴露会影响心脏发育，导致心肌细胞分化效率受损，形成较小的、收缩能力受损的心脏类器官 145。
- 器官积累：不同粒径的聚苯乙烯微塑料/纳米塑料（50 nm, 100 nm, 500 nm）在小鼠体内分布研究显示，粒径越小，颗粒在体内（主要在肝脏、脾脏和肠道）积累越多，且更容易穿透组织 142。与微塑料相比，纳米塑料更容易进入组织并引起肝、肾和心脏功能的变化 142。
高表面积与更强生物活性：
纳米塑料具有较大的比表面积，这意味着它们可以吸附更多的环境污染物（如重金属、持久性有机污染物）和生物分子（如蛋白质、脂质）。这些吸附物可能在纳米塑料进入生物体后协同发挥毒性作用，或改变纳米塑料本身的生物学行为 138。- 细胞相互作用：纳米塑料更容易与细胞膜、细胞器（如线粒体）发生相互作用，从而干扰细胞正常功能 139146。例如，聚苯乙烯纳米塑料（PS-NPs）能进入神经元并定位于线粒体中，导致线粒体功能障碍和ATP产生下降，这与动物的异常行为密切相关 144147。在分化的SH-SY5Y细胞中，PS-NPs通过激活AMPK/ULK1通路诱导过度的线粒体自噬，导致多巴胺能神经元死亡 147。
- 诱导细胞自噬异常：除了线粒体自噬，纳米塑料还可能影响整体细胞自噬过程。研究发现，聚苯乙烯纳米塑料（PS-NPs）能够激活自噬并促进转录因子SOX2的自噬降解，进而抑制ROCK1介导的滋养层细胞迁移和侵袭，这可能是导致流产的机制之一 80。这种自噬异常可能导致细胞内有害物质或受损细胞器积累，从而进一步损害细胞功能 146。
研究的起步阶段与不确定性：
尽管纳米塑料的潜在危害令人担忧，但目前对其毒性机制和长期健康影响的研究仍处于起步阶段，存在大量知识空白 138139141。- 检测技术限制：如前所述，在生物样本中精准检测纳米塑料极具挑战性，污染控制、小粒径颗粒识别和量化仍是技术难点。
- 环境相关浓度与真实暴露：大多数毒理学研究使用的纳米塑料浓度远高于环境实际浓度，且多采用标准化的球形颗粒，与环境中真实存在的、形状和化学组成异质性的纳米塑料存在差异 138148。这限制了实验结果向真实暴露场景的转化能力。
- 长期效应和跨代影响：关于纳米塑料长期低剂量暴露对人体健康的影响以及其潜在的跨代传递效应，目前仍缺乏流行病学数据和深入机制研究。
- 作用机制复杂性：纳米塑料的毒性机制是多因素的，涉及氧化应激、炎症反应、基因毒性、线粒体功能障碍、自噬异常以及与内分泌干扰物和重金属的协同作用 138146。这些复杂机制的全面阐明需要多学科的协同努力。
因此，迫切需要投入更多资源，开发更先进的检测方法，开展更贴近真实暴露场景的毒理学研究，并加强长期流行病学调查，以全面评估纳米塑料对人类健康的潜在危害。
6.1 源头减量与替代技术
解决微塑料对人类健康的威胁，最根本的策略在于从源头减少塑料的生产和消费，特别是那些不必要的塑料制品。同时，积极开发和推广对环境和人体更友好的替代材料和设计方案，并通过生命周期分析（LCA）全面评估其环境与健康效益，是实现可持续发展的关键路径 149。
限制不必要塑料的生产与使用：
当前社会对塑料制品的过度依赖，尤其是对一次性塑料用品的广泛使用，是导致微塑料污染日益加剧的主要原因。因此，必须通过政策法规和公众教育，限制不必要的塑料生产和消费。推广可降解材料与无塑料设计：
在无法完全避免使用塑料的场景中，开发和推广环境友好型替代材料，以及从产品设计阶段就考虑无塑料化，是重要的补充策略。- 生物降解塑料（Bioplastics）：生物降解塑料被视为传统塑料的一种有前景的替代品，它们来源于可再生资源（如生物质废弃物、农业废弃物或微藻）且在特定环境条件下可被微生物降解 153154155156。例如，聚乳酸（PLA）基薄膜作为可生物降解的地膜替代品，可以减少农业废弃物中的塑料污染 157。然而，需要注意的是，生物降解塑料并非万无一失。虽然它们具有更高的微生物亲和性，可能更容易降解，但在降解过程中仍会产生生物微塑料（BMPs），其环境行为和对健康的潜在影响尚需深入研究和权衡 156158159。一些生物降解塑料可能需要特定的工业堆肥条件才能有效降解，否则在自然环境中仍可能长期存在，并产生微塑料碎片 154。
- 无塑料设计（Plastic-free design）：在产品设计初期就避免使用塑料，或探索完全替代塑料的材料。例如，在化学和生物反应领域，超声波悬浮技术可以实现“无容器”反应，避免了传统塑料反应器带来的污染和未知风险 160。在农业领域，使用可生物降解的粘胶纤维和黄麻纤维替代聚丙烯（PP）拉菲草，或使用可生物降解的聚乳酸薄膜替代聚乙烯（PE）地膜，可以减少塑料污染并支持园艺业向循环经济转型 157。
- 再生材料的应用：通过提高回收塑料的需求和使用量，可以减少原生塑料的生产，促进塑料的循环利用，也是一种重要的源头减量方式 149150。
生命周期分析（LCA）评估替代材料的环境与健康效益：
在推广任何替代材料时，进行全面的生命周期分析至关重要，以避免“治标不治本”或产生新的环境问题。LCA可以评估产品从原材料获取、生产、使用到废弃处理整个生命周期中的环境影响，包括能源消耗、温室气体排放、水资源消耗以及对生态系统和人体健康的影响 153155161。- 全面考量：对生物降解塑料的LCA研究表明，其环境性能高度依赖于原材料的选择、生产过程中的能源消耗以及废弃物处理方式 153155。例如，在某些情况下，生物基生物降解材料的环境影响可能高于传统塑料，尤其是当它们的质量和体积较大时 162。
- 避免负面转移：LCA有助于识别和避免将环境负担从一个阶段转移到另一个阶段，或从一种环境问题转移到另一种环境问题。例如，生物降解塑料的生产可能涉及农业土地使用、水资源消耗和化肥使用等问题，这些也需要LCA进行评估 155。
- 经济效益与环境效益的平衡：替代方案通常伴随着更高的成本。例如，可生物降解和可堆肥的替代品在园艺业中可能比传统方案贵49% 157。因此，在评估替代方案时，需要综合考虑环境效益、经济可行性和社会接受度，并通过政策激励和优化生产过程来降低成本，使其更具竞争力 153157。
6.2 过程控制与循环利用
在源头减量之外，对已生产和使用的塑料进行有效的过程控制和最大化循环利用，是解决微塑料污染的关键环节。这包括改进塑料生产工艺、提高回收效率（尤其是通过先进技术如化学回收）、建立生产者责任延伸（EPR）制度，并重点关注废弃塑料的规范处理，避免露天焚烧等不当行为。
改进塑料生产工艺：
- 减少添加剂使用：塑料中常用的添加剂，如邻苯二甲酸酯和双酚A，不仅本身具有毒性，而且易从塑料中迁移出来，增加健康风险。因此，塑料生产商应致力于开发和使用更安全的替代添加剂，或通过改进聚合物的性能，减少对添加剂的依赖。
- 优化聚合物结构：设计更稳定、不易降解成微塑料的聚合物结构，或开发可追溯、易于识别和回收的塑料产品，可以从根本上降低微塑料的生成和环境泄漏。
- 提高产品耐久性：延长塑料产品的使用寿命，减少频繁更换，可以降低塑料废弃物的产生量。这需要生产商在产品设计和材料选择上注重耐久性和可修复性。
提高回收效率与发展先进回收技术：
目前全球塑料回收率仍然较低，例如2018年美国仅有8.66%的城市固体废弃物塑料被回收，而75.9%被填埋 163。提高回收效率是减少塑料污染、防止其进一步降解为微塑料的关键。- 物理回收的优化：物理回收（机械回收）是最常见的回收方式，但面临收集成本高、分选复杂、原料性能不一致以及潜在污染物等挑战 163。需要通过技术升级，例如改进分选技术（如自动化分选、人工智能识别），提高回收塑料的纯度和质量。
- 化学回收技术：化学回收是一种前景广阔的回收技术，它通过化学方法将废弃塑料分解为单体、聚合物或其他化学品，从而实现塑料的无限次循环利用。例如，热解、气化、解聚等技术可以将混合塑料废物转化为燃料、化学原料或新的塑料单体。这对于目前难以物理回收的复杂或混合塑料尤其重要。
- 溶剂回收：通过溶剂溶解塑料，再沉淀回收，可以获得高纯度的再生塑料，适用于特定类型的塑料，减少降解和污染。
- 技术创新：研发新的回收技术，如利用零价铁（nZVI）等材料高效去除废水中的微塑料-重金属复合污染物，实现微塑料的快速分离和重金属的还原稳定，这为废水中的微塑料处理提供了新的解决方案 164。
建立生产者责任延伸（EPR）制度：
生产者责任延伸（EPR）制度是推动塑料循环经济发展的核心机制，它要求生产者对其产品在整个生命周期（特别是消费后阶段）的环境影响负责。- EPR的实施效果：实行EPR制度的国家通常拥有更高的回收率。通过对产品征收基于可回收性和容量的费用和税款，EPR增加了生产商在产品生产、营销和处置方面的责任 163。例如，南非实施EPR后，预计到2040年可避免33%的塑料污染 165。印度也正在通过EPR框架来改善其塑料废弃物管理系统，解决日益增长的塑料废弃物问题 166。
- 克服实施挑战：在发展中国家，EPR的实施面临诸多挑战，如市场化的回收系统、高昂的运输成本、农村地区缺乏废物收集服务、缺乏处理特定类型塑料废弃物的设施以及监管不足和搭便车行为等 167。需要通过差异化生产者责任、关注农村地区、吸纳非正规部门、建立联合回收设施、扩大废物收集服务和加强监管来克服这些挑战 167。
- 政策协同：EPR制度的有效实施需要国内外政策和商业的协调配合，以解决回收过程中的关键复杂问题 163。
废弃塑料的规范处理：
不规范的废弃物处理方式是微塑料和有毒物质进入环境的主要途径之一。- 避免露天焚烧：露天焚烧塑料废弃物会释放大量有毒气体和微塑料颗粒，严重污染空气和土壤 168。尤其是在发展中国家，这种做法常常与城市固体废弃物（MSW）的处理结合进行，对环境和居民健康造成巨大危害 168。必须严格禁止露天焚烧，并推动更环保的焚烧技术（如配备高效烟气处理系统的现代化焚烧厂）。
- 规范垃圾填埋：尽管填埋是塑料废弃物处理的一种方式，但填埋场仍是微塑料的重要来源，且可能导致周边环境的污染 169。应采用更严格的填埋标准，防止微塑料通过渗滤液和风力扩散。
- 污泥管理：污水处理厂（WWTPs）产生的污泥中含有大量微塑料 170。将这些污泥用于农业用途是土壤微塑料的重要来源 170。因此，需要开发有效的技术来去除污泥中的微塑料，并制定规范的污泥处理和利用标准，以防止微塑料通过这一途径扩散。
- 机械生物处理（MBT）的优化：机械生物处理是处理混合城市固体废弃物的常用方法，但研究表明，MBT过程会产生大量微塑料，并使其富集在有机输出物中。为了减少微塑料的形成和排放，应尽可能将城市固体废弃物中的有机组分单独收集和处理 171。
通过这些过程控制和循环利用策略的协同作用，可以显著减少进入环境的塑料废弃物，降低微塑料的生成率，从而减轻其对人类健康的潜在威胁。
6.3 末端治理与环境修复
末端治理与环境修复是微塑料污染防控策略的重要组成部分，旨在从环境中去除已存在的微塑料，或减少其进一步扩散。这主要包括污水处理厂的微塑料拦截技术和已污染环境（如海洋、土壤）的微塑料清除技术。然而，这些技术的应用成本和潜在生态风险也需仔细评估。
污水处理厂微塑料拦截技术：
污水处理厂（WWTPs）是微塑料进入水体环境的主要途径之一，因此，提高其微塑料去除效率至关重要。传统的污水处理工艺对微塑料的去除能力有限，尤其难以有效去除纳米级塑料，导致大量微塑料随处理后的废水排放到环境中 172173。目前，膜过滤、生物吸附等先进技术在微塑料拦截方面展现出巨大潜力。- 膜过滤技术：膜生物反应器（MBR）已被证明是去除微塑料（MPs）最有效的方法之一，去除效率可高达99.9% 173174。陶瓷微滤（MF）与光催化剂负载的聚醚砜（PES）球体结合的混合处理工艺，通过吸附和紫外光氧化作用，可有效控制膜污染并提高微塑料的去除效率 175。纤维素醋酸酯纳米纤维膜通过过滤和吸附作用，可高效去除水中的颗粒物和染料 176。然而，膜过滤技术也面临挑战，如膜污染、高运行成本和维护复杂性 173。
- 吸附技术：吸附是去除微塑料的广泛研究技术，包括静电相互作用、氢键、π-π相互作用和疏水效应等多种吸附机制 177。
- 生物炭吸附：生物炭是一种低成本、高效且环境友好的吸附剂，对微塑料（MPx）和纳米塑料（NPx）具有显著的去除效果。由玉米秸秆、硬木、松树皮等生物质制备的生物炭，在不同环境条件下（如pH、温度、离子强度）对微塑料的吸附去除率可达90%以上 178。吸附机制涉及化学键合和静电吸引。在饱和柱状多孔介质中，生物炭修饰的砂滤器能有效抑制各种微塑料的通过 178。
- 纳米材料吸附：金属有机框架（MOFs）、碳基纳米材料、MXene、金属氧化物等纳米材料因其高比表面积、增强的反应活性和可调节的表面化学性质，在选择性高效去除水中微塑料方面具有广阔前景 172177。例如，将废咖啡渣和茶叶残渣转化为多孔材料，可制备出高效吸附剂，对海洋微塑料、放射性污染物和抗生素等污染物具有显著去除能力 179。
- 生物絮凝剂：阳离子改性淀粉（CS）作为一种环保型生物絮凝剂，可有效去除水中的微塑料，平均去除率可达65.33%，对大尺寸、高密度和老化的微塑料效果更佳 180。其效率在广泛的pH范围内保持稳定，但在粘土或腐殖酸存在时会降低 180。
- 高级氧化工艺（AOPs）：AOPs，如光催化、芬顿（Fenton）和臭氧化等，可以通过产生活性氧物质（ROS）来降解微塑料。某些光催化体系对聚酰胺微纤维的降解率可达90%以上，芬顿基工艺在特定条件下也能实现高达96%的微塑料降解率 181。电化学高级氧化工艺（EAOP）结合表面活性剂（如十二烷基硫酸钠SDS）可显著提高聚苯乙烯微塑料的降解效率 182。然而，AOPs的实际应用需要考虑能源消耗、化学品使用和操作成本，以及降解产物的潜在毒性 181。
环境修复技术：
对于已经进入海洋、土壤等环境中的微塑料，清除和修复更为复杂和昂贵。- 纳米材料与微机器人：纳米技术有望应用于环境修复，通过纳米吸附剂、光催化剂和先进膜材料去除水中的微塑料。此外，微机器人系统和人工智能辅助检测框架也在微塑料监测中发挥新兴作用 172。
- 植物修复（Phytoremediation）：植物修复是一种环境友好且成本效益高的微塑料清除策略。通过植物的富集、稳定和过滤作用，可以降低陆地、水生和大气环境中纳米塑料和亚微米塑料的浓度，并阻止微塑料从源头向汇的迁移 183。
- 挑战与限制：陆地环境中的微塑料清除面临巨大挑战，缺乏有效、经济的清除方法。例如，生物修复和化学修复对土壤微塑料的有效性相对较低，而且难以区分微塑料和天然有机物 184。大规模环境修复的成本高昂、技术复杂，且可能对生态系统造成二次影响，需要权衡收益与风险。
应用成本与生态风险评估：
- 成本：先进的末端治理技术往往伴随着高昂的投资和运行成本。例如，膜生物反应器系统需要膜清洗和防污控制，这会增加运行和资本成本 173。大规模环境修复，如海洋微塑料打捞或土壤深度修复，所需资金和技术投入巨大。
- 生态风险：一些修复技术本身可能带来新的生态风险。例如，用于微塑料清除的纳米材料，如果不能有效回收或生物降解，可能会在环境中积累，产生纳米毒性。高级氧化工艺产生的降解产物可能具有新的毒性，需要进行毒性评估 181。生物修复虽然环境友好，但其效率可能受限于植物种类和环境条件，且在修复过程中可能存在生物富集风险。因此，在推广任何末端治理和环境修复技术之前，必须进行全面的生命周期评估和风险评估，以确保其可持续性和环境安全性。
6.4 政策协同与公众参与
要有效应对微塑料对人类健康的威胁，单一的技术或管理手段是远远不够的，必须采取全球范围内的政策协同与广泛的公众参与。这涉及从国际到国家层面的法规框架建设，以及通过教育和宣传提高公众意识、引导行为改变。
全球与国家层面的政策法规框架：
全球塑料污染问题日益严峻，迫切需要国际合作与具有法律约束力的框架来应对 118。- 全球塑料条约（Global Plastics Treaty）：联合国环境大会（UNEA）于2022年3月通过了一项具有里程碑意义的决议，授权启动谈判制定一项具有法律约束力的全球塑料条约。该条约旨在解决塑料的整个生命周期问题，从生产、设计到废弃物管理，目标是到2040年终止塑料污染 118。
- 关键条款：该条约的关键条款应包括：对全球塑料生产设定上限和目标；将条约范围扩大到所有塑料中包含的数千种化学物质，而不仅仅是微塑料和海洋垃圾；禁止或严格限制不必要、可避免和有问题的塑料制品（特别是微珠等一次性用品）的生产和使用；强制实行生产者责任延伸（EPR）制度，使生产者对其产品的安全性和生命周期管理承担法律和经济责任；制定塑料产品和添加剂的健康保护标准，要求充分披露所有成分并实现可追溯性；以及纳入社会和环境公正补救措施，确保污染负担公平分配 118。
- 协同作用：全球塑料条约的有效实施需要与《巴塞尔公约》（Basel Convention）和《伦敦公约》（London Convention）等现有国际协议加强合作，以更好地管理危险塑料废弃物，并减缓高收入国家向发展中国家大规模出口塑料废弃物的现象 118。
- 国家/区域层面的法规配套：各国应根据全球条约的框架，制定和完善本国法规，例如限制微塑料生产、规定产品微塑料含量标识、设定暴露限值等。例如，中国已建立相关法律法规来管理和控制塑料废弃物，并提出了一系列控制塑料污染的建议，包括源头控制、加强技术创新、减少一次性塑料制品使用和加强国际合作等 185。欧盟也走在前列，通过立法限制某些微塑料的使用，并推动循环经济战略。
- 全球塑料条约（Global Plastics Treaty）：联合国环境大会（UNEA）于2022年3月通过了一项具有里程碑意义的决议，授权启动谈判制定一项具有法律约束力的全球塑料条约。该条约旨在解决塑料的整个生命周期问题，从生产、设计到废弃物管理，目标是到2040年终止塑料污染 118。
政策协同的重要性：
微塑料污染是一个跨越国界和环境介质的复杂问题，需要多部门、多层级的政策协同 118。- 跨部门合作：环境部门、工业部门、卫生部门和科技部门需要紧密合作，共同制定和实施塑料污染防治政策。例如，工业部门应负责改进生产工艺，减少有害添加剂的使用；卫生部门应评估微塑料的健康风险，为政策制定提供科学依据；科技部门应研发新的替代材料和回收技术。
- 国际合作：鉴于塑料污染的全球性，国际合作对于协调各国政策、共享最佳实践、提供技术援助至关重要。例如，通过区域协定共同管理跨界塑料污染，或在高污染国家实施能力建设方案。
- 利益相关者参与：政府、行业、科研机构、非政府组织和公众等所有利益相关者都应参与到政策制定和实施过程中，确保政策的全面性和有效性。
公众参与与意识提升策略：
公众是塑料消费和废弃物产生的核心主体，其行为模式对微塑料污染有着重要影响。提升公众对微塑料危害的认知，鼓励其采取负责任的消费和废弃物处理行为，是防控策略中不可或缺的一环。- 教育与宣传：
- 学校教育：将微塑料污染和环境保护内容纳入各级学校课程，从小培养学生的环保意识和习惯。
- 媒体宣传：利用新闻媒体、社交媒体、纪录片等多种渠道，普及微塑料的来源、危害及应对方法，提高公众的科学素养。例如，持续的媒体曝光已显著提升了公众对塑料危害的认识 186。
- 社区活动：组织社区清理活动、环保讲座、废弃物回收宣传等，让公众亲身参与环保实践，增强责任感。
- 引导消费行为改变：
- 公众监督与赋能：
- 报告机制：建立公众监督平台，鼓励公民报告塑料污染现象，为政府部门提供数据支持和监督。
- 赋能公民科学：支持公民科学项目，让公众参与到微塑料样本采集、监测等研究中，提高其对科学的理解和参与感。
- 教育与宣传：
通过政策的协同作用和公众的积极参与，才能形成全社会共同治理微塑料污染的强大合力，从而最大限度地降低微塑料对人类健康的潜在威胁。
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Valeria Hidalgo-Ruz, Lars Gutow, Richard C Thompson, et al.
Environ Sci Technol. 2012 Mar 20;46(6):3060-75. doi: 10.1021/es2031505. Epub 2012 Mar 2.
This review of 68 studies compares the methodologies used for the identification and quantification of microplastics from the marine environment. Three main sampling strategies were identified: selective, volume-reduced, and bulk sampling. Most sediment samples came from sandy beaches at the high tide line, and most seawater samples were taken at the sea surface using neuston nets. Four steps were distinguished during sample processing: density separation, filtration, sieving, and visual sorting of microplastics. Visual sorting was one of the most commonly used methods for the identification of microplastics (using type, shape, degradation stage, and color as criteria). Chemical and physical characteristics (e.g., specific density) were also used. The most reliable method to identify the chemical composition of microplastics is by infrared spectroscopy. Most studies reported that plastic fragments were polyethylene and polypropylene polymers. Units commonly used for abundance estimates are "items per m(2)" for sediment and sea surface studies and "items per m(3)" for water column studies. Mesh size of sieves and filters used during sampling or sample processing influence abundance estimates. Most studies reported two main size ranges of microplastics: (i) 500 μm-5 mm, which are retained by a 500 μm sieve/net, and (ii) 1-500 μm, or fractions thereof that are retained on filters. We recommend that future programs of monitoring continue to distinguish these size fractions, but we suggest standardized sampling procedures which allow the spatiotemporal comparison of microplastic abundance across marine environments.
4Occurrence and distribution of microplastics in wetlands.PubMed
Mahdieh Dalvand, Amir Hossein Hamidian
Sci Total Environ. 2023 Mar 1;862:160740. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160740. Epub 2022 Dec 8.
Presence of microplastic particles has been reported in all over the world, even in remote areas with no human activities. Wetlands are important transitional areas between terrestrial and aquatic systems. However, microplastic pollution in wetlands is less studied than other aquatic ecosystems. In this review, documented researches about microplastic occurrence and distribution in different components of wetland systems (except constructed wetlands) were investigated. In this regard, all available articles from different science databases with the keywords microplastic, wetland and lagoon in title were examined and results were proposed by text, table and diagram, after standardization of data express units. Based on results, wetland ecosystems are prone to microplastic pollution. Based on particle properties, PE/PP and fiber/fragment were the most dominant reported chemical composition and particle shapes, respectively.
5Status and prospects of atmospheric microplastics: A review of methods, occurrence, composition, source and health risks.PubMed
An Xu, Mingming Shi, Xinli Xing, et al.
Environ Pollut. 2022 Jun 15;303:119173. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119173. Epub 2022 Mar 16.
The global pollution of microplastics (MPs) has attracted widespread attention, and the atmosphere was an indispensable media for the global transmission of MPs. With the growing awareness of MPs, atmospheric microplastics (AMPs) have been proposed as a new topic in recent years. Compared with the extensive studies on MPs in Marine and terrestrial environments, the studies of AMPs remain limited. In this study, sampling and analysis methods, occurrence, source analysis and health risk of AMPs were summarized and discussed. According to the different sampling methods, AMPs can be divided into suspension microplastics (SAMPs) and deposition microplastics (DAMPs). Previous studies have shown that SAMPs and DAMPs differ in composition and abundance, with SAMPs generally having a higher fraction of fragments. The mechanism of the migration of AMPs between different media was not clear yet. We further collated global data on the composition characteristics of MPs in soil and fresh water, which showed that the fragment MPs in soil and fresh water was higher than that in the atmosphere. Polymers in soil and fresh water were mainly PP and PE, while AMPs in the atmosphere were mainly PET. The shape composition of the MPs in both atmospheric and freshwater systems suggests that there may be the same dominant factor. The transport of AMPs and source apportionment were the important issues of current research, but both of them were at the initial stage. Therefore, AMPs needs to be further studied, especially for the source and fate, which would be conducive to understand the global distribution of AMPs. Furthermore, a standardized manual on sampling and processing of AMPs was also necessary to facilitate the comparative analysis of data between different studies and the construction of global models.
6Shapes of Hyperspectral Imaged Microplastics.PubMed
Fan Liu, Lasse A Rasmussen, Nanna D R Klemmensen, et al.
Environ Sci Technol. 2023 Aug 22;57(33):12431-12441. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.3c03517. Epub 2023 Aug 10.
Shape matters for microplastics, but its definition, particularly for hyperspectral imaged microplastics, remains ambiguous and inexplicit, leading to incomparability across data. Hyperspectral imaging is a common approach for quantification, yet no unambiguous microplastic shape classification exists. We conducted an expert-based survey and proposed a set of clear and concise shapes (, , , , , , , , and ). The categories were validated on images of 11,042 microplastics from four environmental compartments (seven matrices: indoor air; wastewater influent, effluent, and sludge; marine water; stormwater; and stormwater pond sediments), by inviting five experts to score each shape. We found that the proposed shapes were well defined, representative, and distinguishable to the human eye, especially for and . , , and were though less distinguishable but dominated in all water and solid matrices. Indoor air held more , an abstract shape that appeared mostly for particles below 30 μm. This study highlights the need for assessing the recognizability of chosen shape categories prior to reporting data. Shapes with a clear and stringent definition would increase comparability and reproducibility across data and promote harmonization in microplastic research.
7Global distribution of microplastics and its impact on marine environment-a review.PubMed
Nithin Ajith, Sundaramanickam Arumugam, Surya Parthasarathy, et al.
Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2020 Jul;27(21):25970-25986. doi: 10.1007/s11356-020-09015-5. Epub 2020 May 7.
Microplastics are the major environmental health hazards spotted in almost all the marine habitats and biota of world. The earlier research on microplastics have mainly focused on studying abundance and distribution as well as impacts on organisms, while the existing review articles have reviewed on any one of the above aspects or the environmental fate of microplastics. The current review focuses on all the above facets thereby bringing out the incompleteness in information globally in the respective facets. Our findings suggest that among 192 countries of the world, only 22.9% (44) of the countries have carried out research regarding microplastics, while impacts on organisms have mostly targeted fish (38%), whereas studies on other highly affected organisms such as turtles (1%) are not well documented. Therefore, we suggest expanding research in all the above aspects of microplastics considering that there are several pristine marine environments and organisms that are yet unexplored. Quantifying research in these regards would enable to propose a microplastic threshold level and formulate control measures to reduce the use of plastics and its subsequent threat to the marine environment.
8Microplastics in soil and freshwater: Understanding sources, distribution, potential impacts, and regulations for management.PubMed
Maimoona Raza, Jin-Yong Lee, Jihye Cha
Sci Prog. 2022 Jul-Sep;105(3):368504221126676. doi: 10.1177/00368504221126676.
Plastic debris is a complex and persistent environmental contaminant that has received a high amount of attention in the last few years. Understanding the sources, transport, fate, occurrence, and health risks of microplastics (MPs) in the environment is essential as millions of tons of plastic are manufactured and released into the environment. There is a high possibility that MPs will accumulate and retain within continental environments and have effects on the environment and human health. This review elucidates the outcomes of studies related to the prevalence, transport, fate, and health risks of MPs in soil and freshwater environments. The review shows that the sources of MPs are diverse and extensive and their occurrence, transport, fate, and health risks in the environment are affected by their physico-chemical characteristics and by natural factors. Implemented legislation or regulatory plans to reduce MPs contamination of the environment have been reviewed in this study. Moreover, management options are presented.
9Distribution, sources, migration, influence and analytical methods of microplastics in soil ecosystems.PubMed
Huirong Yang, Yan Yumeng, Youkai Yu, et al.
Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2022 Sep 15;243:114009. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.114009. Epub 2022 Aug 26.
Microplastics are ubiquitous in soil ecosystems all over the world through source and migration. It is even estimated that the content of microplastics in terrestrial ecosystems exceeds the number of microplastics entering sea ecosystems. However, compared with the research on microplastics in marine ecosystems, the research and discussion on microplastics in soil ecosystems are still less. Transportation, film mulching and sewage sludge are three main sources of soil microplastics. The abundance, polymer type, size and shape of the microplastics are related to the source and they help to clarify the source. The characteristics of microplastics, farming measures, soil animal activities and other factors promote the migration of microplastics, which bring new challenges to the soil ecosystems and humans. This article summarizes the latest research findings on the effects of soil microplasticity on soil properties, plants, animals and microorganisms. The analysis methods of microplastics in soil can refer to the analysis methods of microplastics of aquatic sediments, because soil and aquatic sediments are similar, both of which are complex solid substrates. At present, the development of analytical methods is limited due to the complex matrix of soil and the small volume of microplastics, which requires continuous development and innovation. Through the summary and analysis of related articles, this article reviews the distribution, sources, migration, influence and analysis methods of soil microplastics. This article also critically analyzes the deficiencies in the studies of microplastics in the soil ecosystems, and made some suggestions for future work. The microplastics in soil ecosystems need further research and summary, which will help people further understand the potential hazards of microplastics.
10Interactions of microplastics and main pollutants and environmental behavior in soils.PubMed
Huirong Yang, Han Dong, Yurou Huang, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2022 May 15;821:153511. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153511. Epub 2022 Jan 29.
Microplastics (MPs) are emerging global contaminants, attracting more and more attention because of their difficulty in degradation, extensive and persistent pollution. In freshwater environment, especially in the ocean, they have become a global, public and even political research hotspot. However, the distribution, fate and ecological hazards of MPs in agricultural land and other soils have not been explored fully. Although the occurrence of MPs in different habitats has been reviewed at home and abroad, little attention has been paid to its environmental behavior, ecotoxicology and interaction with biological and chemical pollutants in soil. This review summaries the research progress on the source, accumulation, degradation and migration of MPs in soil, the potential risks of ecological environment and food chain. In order to provide theoretical basis and practical suggestions for related research and regulatory countermeasures, the detection and treatment methods and mechanism of microplastics in soil need to be further explored.
11Environmental microplastics: Classification, sources, fates, and effects on plants.PubMed
Quan Gan, Jiawen Cui, Biao Jin
Chemosphere. 2023 Feb;313:137559. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.137559. Epub 2022 Dec 14.
Microplastic (MP) pollution has become a global concern due to the generation of extensive plastic waste and products (370 million metric tons in 2020) that are difficult to biodegrade. Therefore, MPs have attracted a great deal of research attention, and many new findings regarding MPs (over 9000 papers published in the last 3 years) have been reported. MPs generally exert adverse effects on plants. As MPs accumulate in agricultural ecosystems, many studies have sought to understand the sources and fates of MPs and their effects on various plants. However, there have been few reviews of the properties of MPs, their effects on plants, and their interactions with other factors (e.g., drought, heat, ultraviolet light, plant hormones, heavy metals, and other pollutants) remain poorly understood. In this review, we performed scientometrics analyses of research papers (January 1, 2019, to September 30, 2022) in this field. We focused on the recent progress in the classification of MPs and their sources, circulation, and deposition in agricultural ecosystems. We review MP uptake and transport in plants, as well as factors (size, type, and environmental factors) that affect MP uptake, the positive and negative effects of MPs on plants, and the mechanisms of MP impacts on plants. We discuss current issues and future perspectives concerning research into plant interactions with MPs, along with some promising methods to manage the MP issue.
12Environmental behaviors and degradation methods of microplastics in different environmental media.PubMed
Binbin Xi, Bing Wang, Miao Chen, et al.
Chemosphere. 2022 Jul;299:134354. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134354. Epub 2022 Mar 16.
Microplastics, as a group of emerging contaminants, are widely present in environmental media and have the potential to endanger the ecological environment and human health. Due to the inconsistencies and difficulties inherent in the analysis of microplastic particles, global monitoring data on the distribution of microplastics in the environment are still far from sufficient. The fate and migration of microplastics in the environment are also uncertain. Therefore, there have been increasing reviews on the distribution, biological effects, migration, and health risks of microplastics. However, reports focusing on the degradation of microplastics are still rare. Understanding and commanding the environmental behavior of microplastics are of great significance to explore the treatment of microplastic pollution. Although some preliminary studies on microplastics have been carried out, there is still an urgent need to conduct a comprehensive study on environmental behaviors and degradation methods of microplastics in different environmental media. This article summarizes the recent advances on microplastics, basically includes the distribution and ecological impact of microplastics in soil and water environments, then elaborates the migration behavior and influencing factors of microplastics, and focuses on the research progress of microplastics degradation methods. On this basis, the problems existing in the current research and the future development directions have been proposed. This review could provide a more systematic reference for the development and research of microplastics in the future.
13Absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and toxicity of microplastics in the human body and health implications.PubMed
Pengfei Wu, Siyi Lin, Guodong Cao, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2022 Sep 5;437:129361. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129361. Epub 2022 Jun 16.
Microplastics (MPs; <5 mm) in the biosphere draws public concern about their potential health impacts. Humans are potentially exposed to MPs via ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. Ingestion and inhalation are the two major exposure pathways. An adult may consume approximately 5.1 × 10 items from table salts and up to 4.1 × 10 items via drinking water annually. Meanwhile, MP inhalation intake ranges from 0.9 × 10 to 7.9 × 10 items per year. The intake of MPs would be further distributed in different tissues and organs of humans depending on their sizes. The excretion has been discussed with the possible clearance ways (e.g., urine and feces). The review summarized the absorption, distribution, metabolic toxicity and excretion of MPs together with the attached chemicals. Moreover, the potential implications on humans are also discussed from in vitro and in vivo studies, and connecting the relationship between the physicochemical properties and the potential risks. This review will contribute to a better understanding of MPs as culprits and/or vectors linking to potential human health hazards, which will help outline the promising areas for further revealing the possible toxicity pathways.
14Human biomonitoring of microplastics and health implications: A review.PubMed
Giuseppina Zuri, Angeliki Karanasiou, Sílvia Lacorte
Environ Res. 2023 Nov 15;237(Pt 1):116966. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.116966. Epub 2023 Aug 25.
BACKGROUND: Microplastics (MPs) are plastic particles (<5 mm) ubiquitous in water, soil, and air, indicating that humans can be exposed to MPs through ingestion of water and food, and inhalation. OBJECTIVE: This review provides an overview of the current human biomonitoring data available to evaluate human exposure and health impact of MPs. METHOD: We compiled 91 relevant studies on MPs in human matrices and MPs toxicological endpoints to provide evidence on MPs distribution in the different tissues and the implications this can have from a health perspective. RESULTS: Human exposure to MPs has been corroborated by the detection of MPs in different human biological samples including blood, urine, stool, lung tissue, breast milk, semen and placenta. Although humans have clearance mechanisms protecting them from potentially harmful substances, health risks associated to MPs exposure include the onset of inflammation, oxidative stress, and DNA damage, potentially leading to cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, as well as cancer, as suggested by in vitro and in vivo studies. CONCLUSION: Based on compiled data, MPs have been recurrently identified in different human tissues and fluids, suggesting that humans are exposed to MPs through inhalation and ingestion. Despite differences in MPs concentrations appear in exposed and non-exposed people, accumulation and distribution pathways and potential human health hazards is still at an infant stage. Human biomonitoring data enables the assessment of human exposure to MPs and associated risks, and this information can contribute to draw management actions and guidelines to minimize MP release to the environment, and thus, reduce human uptake.
15Microplastics in the Human Body: Exposure, Detection, and Risk of Carcinogenesis: A State-of-the-Art Review.PubMed
Eliasz Dzierżyński, Piotr J Gawlik, Damian Puźniak, et al.
Cancers (Basel). 2024 Nov 1;16(21):3703. doi: 10.3390/cancers16213703.
Humans cannot avoid plastic exposure due to its ubiquitous presence in the natural environment. The waste generated is poorly biodegradable and exists in the form of MPs, which can enter the human body primarily through the digestive tract, respiratory tract, or damaged skin and accumulate in various tissues by crossing biological membrane barriers. There is an increasing amount of research on the health effects of MPs. Most literature reports focus on the impact of plastics on the respiratory, digestive, reproductive, hormonal, nervous, and immune systems, as well as the metabolic effects of MPs accumulation leading to epidemics of obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. MPs, as xenobiotics, undergo ADMET processes in the body, i.e., absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion, which are not fully understood. Of particular concern are the carcinogenic chemicals added to plastics during manufacturing or adsorbed from the environment, such as chlorinated paraffins, phthalates, phenols, and bisphenols, which can be released when absorbed by the body. The continuous increase in NMP exposure has accelerated during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic when there was a need to use single-use plastic products in daily life. Therefore, there is an urgent need to diagnose problems related to the health effects of MP exposure and detection. We collected eligible publications mainly from PubMed published between 2017 and 2024. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on potential sources and routes of exposure, translocation pathways, identification methods, and carcinogenic potential confirmed by in vitro and in vivo studies. Additionally, we discuss the limitations of studies such as contamination during sample preparation and instrumental limitations constraints affecting imaging quality and MPs detection sensitivity. The assessment of MP content in samples should be performed according to the appropriate procedure and analytical technique to ensure Quality and Control (QA/QC). It was confirmed that MPs can be absorbed and accumulated in distant tissues, leading to an inflammatory response and initiation of signaling pathways responsible for malignant transformation.
16Environmental exposure to microplastics: An overview on possible human health effects.PubMed
Joana Correia Prata, João P da Costa, Isabel Lopes, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2020 Feb 1;702:134455. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134455. Epub 2019 Oct 4.
Microplastics are ubiquitous environmental contaminants leading to inevitable human exposure. Even so, little is known about the effects of microplastics in human health. Thus, in this work we review the evidence for potential negative effects of microplastics in the human body, focusing on pathways of exposure and toxicity. Exposure may occur by ingestion, inhalation and dermal contact due to the presence of microplastics in products, foodstuff and air. In all biological systems, microplastic exposure may cause particle toxicity, with oxidative stress, inflammatory lesions and increased uptake or translocation. The inability of the immune system to remove synthetic particles may lead to chronic inflammation and increase risk of neoplasia. Furthermore, microplastics may release their constituents, adsorbed contaminants and pathogenic organisms. Nonetheless, knowledge on microplastic toxicity is still limited and largely influenced by exposure concentration, particle properties, adsorbed contaminants, tissues involved and individual susceptibility, requiring further research.
17Micro(nano)plastics pollution and human health: How plastics can induce carcinogenesis to humans?PubMed
Rakesh Kumar, Camelia Manna, Shaveta Padha, et al.
Chemosphere. 2022 Jul;298:134267. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134267. Epub 2022 Mar 14.
Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) are key indicators of the plasticine era, widely spread across different ecosystems. MPs and NPs become global stressors due to their inherent physicochemical characteristics and potential impact on ecosystems and humans. MPs and NPs have been exposed to humans via various pathways, such as tap water, bottled water, seafood, beverages, milk, fish, salts, fruits, and vegetables. This paper highlights MPs and NPs pathways to the food chains and how these plastic particles can cause risks to human health. MPs have been evident in vivo and vitro and have been at health risks, such as respiratory, immune, reproductive, and digestive systems. The present work emphasizes how various MPs and NPs, and associated toxic chemicals, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), impact human health. Polystyrene (PS) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are common MPs and NPs, reported in human implants via ingestion, inhalation, and dermal exposure, which can cause carcinogenesis, according to Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) reports. Inhalation, ingestion, and dermal exposure-response cause genotoxicity, cell division and viability, cytotoxicity, oxidative stress induction, metabolism disruption, DNA damage, inflammation, and immunological responses in humans. Lastly, this review work concluded with current knowledge on potential risks to human health and knowledge gaps with recommendations for further investigation in this field.
18Plastic or plastic-free life: From formation to removal.PubMed
Minghui Li, Yinping Pan, Zongkun Hou, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2023 Sep 10;890:164359. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164359. Epub 2023 May 22.
Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) have caused global environmental concerns due to their ubiquitous existence in our surrounding environment and the potential threats posed to the ecosystem and human health. This review aims to extend current knowledge on the formation and degradation of MPs and NPs. The paper presents the potential sources of MPs and NPs including plastic containers, textiles, cosmetics, personal care products, COVID-19 wastes, and other plastic products. Once in the natural environment, the fragmentation and degradation of plastic wastes are thought to be initiated by physical, chemical, and biological factors. The corresponding degradation mechanism will be presented in the present review. Given the plastic life and environment, humans are inevitably exposed to MPs and NPs through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. The potential risks MPs/NPs pose to humans will be also discussed in our study. Currently, the relevance of MP/NP exposure to human health outcomes is still controversial and not yet fully understood. Deciphering the translocation and degradation of plastics in the human body will be helpful to reveal their potential organotoxicity. In this case, available approaches to alleviate MP/NP pollution and advanced strategies to reduce MP/NP toxicity in humans are recommended to build a plastic-free life.
19Microplastics: Human exposure assessment through air, water, and food.PubMed
Giuseppina Zuri, Angeliki Karanasiou, Sílvia Lacorte
Environ Int. 2023 Sep;179:108150. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2023.108150. Epub 2023 Aug 14.
BACKGROUND: Microplastics (MP) are plastic particles with dimension up to 5 mm. Due to their persistence, global spread across different ecosystems and potential human health effects, they have gained increasing attention during the last decade. However, the extent of human exposure to MP through different pathways and their intake have not been elucidated. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this review is to provide an overview on the pathways of exposure to MP through inhalation, ingestion, and dermal contact considering data from the open bibliography on MP in air, dust, food, water and drinks. METHODS: A bibliographic search on Scopus and PubMed was conducted using keywords on MP in outdoor and indoor air, indoor dust, food including beverages and water and human intake (n = 521). Articles were sorted by their title and abstract (n = 213), and only studies reporting MP identification and quantification techniques were further considered (n = 168). A total of 115 articles that include quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) procedures are finally discussed in the present review. Based on MP concentration data available in literature, we estimated the potential inhaled dose (ID), dust intake (DI), the estimated daily intake (EDI) via food and beverages. Finally, the total daily intake (TDI) considering both inhalation and ingestion routes are provided for adults, infants and newborns. RESULTS: The concentrations of MP in outdoor and indoor air, dust, and in food and water are provided according to the bibliography. Human exposure to MP through dust ingestion, inhalation of air and food/drinks consumption revealed that indoor air and drinking waters were the main sources of MP. CONCLUSIONS: This study reveals that humans are constantly exposed to MP, and that the indoor environment and the food and water we ingest decisively contribute to MP intake. Additionally, we highlight that infants and newborns are exposed to high MP concentrations and further studies are needed to evaluate the presence and risk of MP in this vulnerable age-population.
20Microplastic and plastic pollution: impact on respiratory disease and health.PubMed
Gwenda F Vasse, Barbro N Melgert
Eur Respir Rev. 2024 Jun 12;33(172). doi: 10.1183/16000617.0226-2023. Print 2024 Apr.
Throughout their lifecycle, from production to use and upon disposal, plastics release chemicals and particles known as micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) that can accumulate in the environment. MNPs have been detected in different locations of the human body, including in our lungs. This is likely a consequence of MNP exposure through the air we breathe. Yet, we still lack a comprehensive understanding of the impact that MNP exposure may have on respiratory disease and health. In this review, we have collated the current body of evidence on the implications of MNP inhalation on human lung health from , and occupational exposure studies. We focused on interactions between MNP pollution and different specific lung-resident cells and respiratory diseases. We conclude that it is evident that MNPs possess the capacity to affect lung tissue in disease and health. Yet, it remains unclear to which extent this occurs upon exposure to ambient levels of MNPs, emphasising the need for a more comprehensive evaluation of environmental MNP exposure levels in everyday life.
21Presence of airborne microplastics in human lung tissue.PubMed
Luís Fernando Amato-Lourenço, Regiani Carvalho-Oliveira, Gabriel Ribeiro Júnior, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2021 Aug 15;416:126124. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126124. Epub 2021 May 24.
Plastics are ubiquitously used by societies, but most of the plastic waste is deposited in landfills and in the natural environment. Their degradation into submillimetre fragments, called microplastics, is a growing concern due to potential adverse effects on the environment and human health. Microplastics are present in the air and may be inhaled by humans, but whether they have deleterious effects on the respiratory system remain unknown. In this study, we determined the presence of microplastics in human lung tissues obtained at autopsies. Polymeric particles (n = 33) and fibres (n = 4) were observed in 13 of 20 tissue samples. All polymeric particles were smaller than 5.5 µm in size, and fibres ranged from 8.12 to 16.8 µm. The most frequently determined polymers were polyethylene and polypropylene. Deleterious health outcomes may be related to the heterogeneous characteristics of these contaminants in the respiratory system following inhalation.
22A Review of Human Exposure to Microplastics and Insights Into Microplastics as Obesogens.PubMed
Kurunthachalam Kannan, Krishnamoorthi Vimalkumar
Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2021 Aug 18;12:724989. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2021.724989. eCollection 2021.
The ubiquitous exposure of humans to microplastics (MPs) through inhalation of particles in air and ingestion in dust, water, and diet is well established. Humans are estimated to ingest tens of thousands to millions of MP particles annually, or on the order of several milligrams daily. Available information suggests that inhalation of indoor air and ingestion of drinking water bottled in plastic are the major sources of MP exposure. Little is known on the occurrence of MPs in human diet. Evidence is accumulating that feeding bottles and medical devices can contribute to MP exposure in newborns and infants. Biomonitoring studies of human stool, fetus, and placenta provide direct evidence of MP exposure in infants and children. MPs <20 µm were reported to cross biological membranes. Although plastics were once perceived as inert materials, MP exposure in laboratory animals is linked to various forms of inflammation, immunological response, endocrine disruption, alteration of lipid and energy metabolism, and other disorders. Whereas exposure to MPs itself is a concern, MPs can also be sources of exposure to plastic additives and other toxicants. Exposure of human cell lines to MP additives such as phthalates, bisphenols, and organotins causes adverse effects through the activation of nuclear receptors, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) α, β, and γ, and retinoid X receptor (RXR), leading to oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, immunotoxicity, thyroid hormone disruption, and altered adipogenesis and energy production. The size, shape, chemical composition, surface charge, and hydrophobicity of MPs influence their toxicity. Maternal transfer of MPs to the developing fetus has been demonstrated in exposed laboratory animals and through the analysis of human placenta. In laboratory animal studies, maternal exposure to MPs altered energy and lipid metabolism in offspring and subsequent generations. Moreover, concomitant with the global increase in plastics production, the prevalence of overweight and obesity in human populations has increased over the past five decades, and there is evidence to support the hypothesis that MPs and their additives are potential obesogens. Even though MP exposures are ubiquitous and toxic effects from such exposures are a concern, systematic studies on this topic remain urgently needed.
23Face masks: a COVID-19 protector or environmental contaminant?PubMed
Sukhendu Dey, Palas Samanta, Deblina Dutta, et al.
Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2023 Sep;30(41):93363-93387. doi: 10.1007/s11356-023-29063-x. Epub 2023 Aug 7.
Face masks, a prime component of personal protective equipment (PPE) items, have become an integral part of human beings to survive under the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic situation. The global population requires an estimated 130 billion face masks and 64 billion gloves/month, while the COVID-19 pandemic has led to the daily disposal of approximately 3.5 billion single-use face masks, resulting in a staggering 14,245,230.63 kg of face mask waste. The improper disposal of face mask wastes followed by its mismanagement is a challenge to the scientists as the wastes create pollution leading to environmental degradation, especially plastic pollution (macro/meso/micro/nano). Each year, an estimated 0.15-0.39 million tons of COVID-19 face mask waste, along with 173,000 microfibers released daily from discarded surgical masks, could enter the marine environment, while used masks have a significantly higher microplastic release capacity (1246.62 ± 403.50 particles/piece) compared to new masks (183.00 ± 78.42 particles/piece). Surgical face masks emit around 59 g CO-eq greenhouse gas emissions per single use, cloth face masks emit approximately 60 g CO-eq/single mask, and inhaling or ingesting microplastics (MPs) caused adverse health problems including chronic inflammation, granulomas or fibrosis, DNA damage, cellular damage, oxidative stress, and cytokine secretion. The present review critically addresses the role of face masks in reducing COVID-19 infections, their distribution pattern in diverse environments, the volume of waste produced, degradation in the natural environment, and adverse impacts on different environmental segments, and proposes sustainable remediation options to tackle environmental challenges posed by disposable COVID-19 face masks.
24Degradation of plastics associated with the COVID-19 pandemic.PubMed
Carlos Ivan Pizarro-Ortega, Diana Carolina Dioses-Salinas, Melisa D Fernández Severini, et al.
Mar Pollut Bull. 2022 Mar;176:113474. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.113474. Epub 2022 Feb 24.
The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in an unprecedented form of plastic pollution: personal protective equipment (PPE). Numerous studies have reported the occurrence of PPE in the marine environment. However, their degradation in the environment and consequences are poorly understood. Studies have reported that face masks, the most abundant type of PPE, are significant sources of microplastics due to their fibrous microstructure. The fibrous material (mostly consisting of polypropylene) exhibits physical changes in the environment, leading to its fracture and detachment of microfibers. Most studies have evaluated PPE degradation under controlled laboratory conditions. However, in situ degradation experiments, including the colonization of PPE, are largely lacking. Although ecotoxicological studies are largely lacking, the first attempts to understand the impact of MPs released from face masks showed various types of impacts, such as fertility and reproduction deficiencies in both aquatic and terrestrial organisms.
25Different weathering conditions affect the release of microplastics by masks.PubMed
Ting Zhang, Changrong Zhao, Xi Chen, et al.
Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2023 May;30(24):66102-66112. doi: 10.1007/s11356-023-27116-9. Epub 2023 Apr 25.
A generation of microplastics caused by improper disposal of disposable masks has become a non-negligible environmental concern. In order to investigate the degradation mechanisms of masks and the release of microplastics under different environmental conditions, the masks are placed in 4 common environments. After 30 days of weathering, the total amount and release kinetics of microplastics released from different layers of the mask were studied. The chemical and mechanical properties of the mask were also discussed. The results showed that the mask released 25141±3543 particles/mask into the soil, which is much more than the sea and river water. The release kinetics of microplastics fit the Elovich model better. All samples correspond to the release rate of microplastics from fast to slow. Experiments show that the middle layer of the mask is released more than the other layers, and the amount of release was highest in the soil. And the tensile capacity of the mask is negatively correlated with its ability to release microplastics in the following order, which are soil > seawater > river > air > new masks. In addition, during the weathering process, the C-C/C-H bond of the mask was broken.
26Microplastics: Detection in human samples, cell line studies, and health impacts.PubMed
Damià Barceló, Yolanda Picó, Ahmed H Alfarhan
Environ Toxicol Pharmacol. 2023 Aug;101:104204. doi: 10.1016/j.etap.2023.104204. Epub 2023 Jun 28.
Microplastics (MPs) are in all environmental compartments, including atmosphere, terrestrial, and aquatic environments as well as in marine organisms, foods, drinking water, and indoor and outdoor environments. MPs can enter the human body through the food chain and contaminated environment. Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact are the routes of their entry into the human body. Recent studies reporting the detection of MPs within the human body have raised concern among the scientific community as the knowledge about human exposure is still very limited and their impact on health is not well-understood yet. In this review article, we briefly cover the reports evidencing MP detection within the human body, e.g., stool, placenta, lungs, liver, sputum, breast milk, and blood. A concise synopsis of sample preparation and analysis of such human matrices is also provided. This article also presents a summary of the effect of MPs on human cell lines and human health.
27Impact of microplastics and nanoplastics on human health: Mechanistic insights and exposure pathways.PubMed
Mohd Fazal Ur Rehman, Mohammad Muaz Khan, Mohammad Mansoob Khan
Toxicol Lett. 2025 Nov 5;414:111769. doi: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2025.111769.
Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) have emerged as critical environmental contaminants with potential adverse effects on human health. This review examines the various ways MPs and NPs can be spread in the environment and their potential impact on humans. They can be introduced into the environment through multiple sources, like synthetic textiles, cosmetics, packaging, and industrial processes. These particles enter the human body through ingestion, inhalation, and skin contact, and they deposit in various tissues, including the lungs, kidneys, and gastrointestinal tract. Additionally, they can cross embryonic layers and reach the placenta. They can cause inflammation, oxidative stress, metabolic disorders, genotoxicity, and immunotoxic effects upon interaction, as confirmed by in-vivo and in-vitro studies. Furthermore, long-term exposure to MPs and NPs causes various complications to the human body, including metabolic disorders or even the development of cancers. Despite the presence of much evidence, a significant gap remains in fully understanding the mechanism of toxicity posed by MPs and NPs exposure and its long-term health outcomes. There is an urgent need for extensive investigations and improvement in standardized methods to evaluate the human health impact of MPs and NPs. This review explores current evidence on exposure pathways, bioaccumulation mechanisms, and health outcomes and identifies critical knowledge gaps.
28Secondary brain injury after polystyrene microplastic-induced intracerebral hemorrhage is associated with inflammation and pyroptosis.PubMed
Kai Yin, Hongmin Lu, Yue Zhang, et al.
Chem Biol Interact. 2022 Nov 1;367:110180. doi: 10.1016/j.cbi.2022.110180. Epub 2022 Sep 13.
Unlike regular environmental pollutants, microplastics cannot dissolve in liquids. Physical contact of microplastic (MPs) with tissue can damage tissue structure, and it is unclear how this physical secondary injury affects brain tissue. Through CTD database analysis, it was determined that cerebral ischemia may be one of the main ways of brain tissue damage caused by MPs, and inflammatory response may play a key role in it. In the present study, PS-MPs (L-PS group:1 mg/L, M - PS group:10 mg/L, H-PS group: 100 mg/L in water) were assessed to brain tissue damage in chicken after six weeks of continuous exposure. Exposure to PS-MPs caused cerebral hemorrhage as well as generation of microthrombi and loss of Purkinje cells. Intracerebral hemorrhage caused a strong infiltration of inflammatory cells and activated the ASC-NLRP3-GSDMD signaling pathway to induce pyroptosis. Disruption of mitochondrial dynamics by PS-MPs exposure disrupts mitochondrial function and activates AMPK signaling. In conclusion, this study explored the mechanism regulation of subsequent brain injury from the perspective of physical injury (cerebral hemorrhage) of PS-MPs. To provide a reference for elucidating the neurotoxicity induced by microplastic exposure.
29Polystyrene microplastics-induced cardiotoxicity in chickens via the ROS-driven NF-κB-NLRP3-GSDMD and AMPK-PGC-1α axes.PubMed
Yue Zhang, Kai Yin, Dongxu Wang, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2022 Sep 20;840:156727. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156727. Epub 2022 Jun 14.
Microplastics (MPs) pollution is getting increasingly prominent, and its dangers have attracted widespread attention. The heart is the central hub of the organism's survival, and the mechanism of MPs-induced heart injury in chickens is unknown. Here, we investigated the effects of 5 μm polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) on the heart and primary cardiomyocytes of chickens at varied concentrations. We observed that PS-MPs caused severe pathological damage and ultrastructural changes in heart, induced myocardial pyroptosis, inflammatory cell infiltration and mitochondrial lesions. PS-MPs evoked abnormal antioxidant enzyme content and ROS overproduction. Detailed mechanistic investigation indicated that PS-MPs triggered pyroptosis via NF-κB-NLRP3-GSDMD axis and exacerbated myocardial inflammation (NLRP3, Caspase-1, IL-1β, IL-18, ASC, GSDMD, NF-κB, COX-2, iNOS and IL-6 overexpression). Additionally, PS-MPs induced mitochondrial damage (TFAM, OPA1, MFN1 and MFN2 down-expression, DRP1 and Fis1 overexpression) and energy metabolism disorders (HK2, PKM2, PDHX and LDH up-regulation) by inhibiting AMPK-PGC-1α pathway. Interestingly, NAC alleviated these aberrant manifestations in vitro. We suggested that PS-MPs driven alterations in NF-κB-NLRP3-GSDMD and AMPK-PGC-1α pathways via ROS overload, which in turn triggered oxidative stress, myocardial pyroptosis, inflammation, mitochondrial and energy metabolism dysfunction. This provided theoretical bases for protecting chickens from toxic injury by MPs.
30Impacts of cadmium and microplastics on Neocaridina denticulata sinensis: Survival, growth, biochemistry, histopathology and gut microbiome.PubMed
Chunyu Zhang, Xiongfei Wang, Yakun Song, et al.
Environ Pollut. 2025 Oct 15;383:126829. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2025.126829. Epub 2025 Jul 16.
Toxicological interactions between microplastics (MPs) and cadmium (Cd) in aquatic life have received extensive attention. However, the mechanism of combined toxicity is still unclear, and most studies have focused on high-concentration stress, while there are relatively few studies on long-term low-concentration stress and the self-recovery ability of organisms. In this research, Neocaridina denticulata sinensis were exposed to low and high concentration of MPs (L-MPs: 2 × 10 item/L, H-MPs: 2 × 10 item/L, environmental concentration: 20 item/L), Cd (1 μg/L) and their combination (Cd + L-MPs, Cd + H-MPs) for 14 d, and then recovered in a clean environment for 7 d. This study indicates that MPs and Cd may enhance toxic effects through the following pathways: (1) Synergistic physical and chemical damage: MPs may act as a Cd carrier, promoting the migration of metal ions across the gill barrier and inducing oxidative stress in the hepatopancreas; (2) Tissue barrier disruption: MPs mechanically wears down the tissue cells of the intestine, hepatopancreas and gills; (3) Imbalance of gut microbiota: The results of 16S rRNA sequencing showed that the abundance of potential beneficial bacteria (ZOR006, Aurantimicrobium, Chitinibacter and Pseudorhodobacter) has decreased. The abundance of opportunistic pathogenic bacteria (Flavobacterium and Polynucleobacter) has increased. After 7 d of recovery, the indicators of oxidative damage and the diversity of the microbiota returned to the levels of the control, indicating that N. denticulata sinensis have a certain self-repair ability against the stress of long-term low-concentration MPs and Cd.
31Cellular absorption of polystyrene nanoplastics with different surface functionalization and the toxicity to RAW264.7 macrophage cells.PubMed
Jiao Chen, Zijun Xu, Yuying Liu, et al.
Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2023 Mar 1;252:114574. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.114574. Epub 2023 Jan 25.
Nanoplastics (NPs) are a matter of widespread concern, as they are easily absorbed by a wide variety of organisms and accumulate in biological tissues. While there is evidence that nanoplastics are toxic to various organisms, few studies have investigated the mechanisms underlying the toxicities of NPs with different surface functionalizations to macrophage cells. In this study, mouse mononuclear macrophage (RAW264.7) cells were exposed to polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) with three different surface functionalizations, namely pristine polystyrene (PS), carboxyl-functionalized polystyrene (PS-COOH), and amino-functionalized polystyrene (PS-NH), to evaluate the cellular endocytosis, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release, cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial membrane potential, apoptosis, and related gene expression. Results showed that all three PS-NPs were endocytosed into cells. However, in the concentration range of 0-100 μg/mL, PS had no effect on cell viability or apoptosis, but it slightly increased cellular ROS and decreased mitochondrial membrane potential. PS-NH exhibited the highest cytotoxicity. PS-COOH and PS-NH induced ROS production, altered the mitochondrial membrane potential, and caused cell apoptosis regulated by the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. Results also showed that cell membrane damage induced by PS-NH is one of the primary mechanisms of its cytotoxicity to RAW264.7 cells. The results of this study clarify the toxicities of PS-NPs with different surface functionalizations to macrophages, thereby improving the identification of immune system risks related to nanoplastics.
32Unpacking Phthalates from Obscurity in the Environment.PubMed
Marzieh Baneshi, Jamey Tonney-Gagne, Fatima Halilu, et al.
Molecules. 2023 Dec 23;29(1):106. doi: 10.3390/molecules29010106.
Phthalates (PAEs) are a group of synthetic esters of phthalic acid compounds mostly used as plasticizers in plastic materials but are widely applied in most industries and products. As plasticizers in plastic materials, they are not chemically bound to the polymeric matrix and easily leach out. Logically, PAEs should be prevalent in the environment, but their prevalence, transport, fate, and effects have been largely unknown until recently. This has been attributed, inter alia, to a lack of standardized analytical procedures for identifying them in complex matrices. Nevertheless, current advancements in analytical techniques facilitate the understanding of PAEs in the environment. It is now known that they can potentially impact ecological and human health adversely, leading to their categorization as endocrine-disrupting chemicals, carcinogenic, and liver- and kidney-failure-causing agents, which has landed them among contaminants of emerging concern (CECs). Thus, this review article reports and discusses the developments and advancements in PAEs' standard analytical methods, facilitating their emergence from obscurity. It further explores the opportunities, challenges, and limits of their advancements.
33Effects and Mechanisms of Phthalates' Action on Reproductive Processes and Reproductive Health: A Literature Review.PubMed
Henrieta Hlisníková, Ida Petrovičová, Branislav Kolena, et al.
Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020 Sep 18;17(18):6811. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17186811.
The production of plastic products, which requires phthalate plasticizers, has resulted in the problems for human health, especially that of reproductive health. Phthalate exposure can induce reproductive disorders at various regulatory levels. The aim of this review was to compile the evidence concerning the association between phthalates and reproductive diseases, phthalates-induced reproductive disorders, and their possible endocrine and intracellular mechanisms. Phthalates may induce alterations in puberty, the development of testicular dysgenesis syndrome, cancer, and fertility disorders in both males and females. At the hormonal level, phthalates can modify the release of hypothalamic, pituitary, and peripheral hormones. At the intracellular level, phthalates can interfere with nuclear receptors, membrane receptors, intracellular signaling pathways, and modulate gene expression associated with reproduction. To understand and to treat the adverse effects of phthalates on human health, it is essential to expand the current knowledge concerning their mechanism of action in the organism.
34EDC-2: The Endocrine Society's Second Scientific Statement on Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals.PubMed
A C Gore, V A Chappell, S E Fenton, et al.
Endocr Rev. 2015 Dec;36(6):E1-E150. doi: 10.1210/er.2015-1010. Epub 2015 Nov 6.
The Endocrine Society's first Scientific Statement in 2009 provided a wake-up call to the scientific community about how environmental endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) affect health and disease. Five years later, a substantially larger body of literature has solidified our understanding of plausible mechanisms underlying EDC actions and how exposures in animals and humans-especially during development-may lay the foundations for disease later in life. At this point in history, we have much stronger knowledge about how EDCs alter gene-environment interactions via physiological, cellular, molecular, and epigenetic changes, thereby producing effects in exposed individuals as well as their descendants. Causal links between exposure and manifestation of disease are substantiated by experimental animal models and are consistent with correlative epidemiological data in humans. There are several caveats because differences in how experimental animal work is conducted can lead to difficulties in drawing broad conclusions, and we must continue to be cautious about inferring causality in humans. In this second Scientific Statement, we reviewed the literature on a subset of topics for which the translational evidence is strongest: 1) obesity and diabetes; 2) female reproduction; 3) male reproduction; 4) hormone-sensitive cancers in females; 5) prostate; 6) thyroid; and 7) neurodevelopment and neuroendocrine systems. Our inclusion criteria for studies were those conducted predominantly in the past 5 years deemed to be of high quality based on appropriate negative and positive control groups or populations, adequate sample size and experimental design, and mammalian animal studies with exposure levels in a range that was relevant to humans. We also focused on studies using the developmental origins of health and disease model. No report was excluded based on a positive or negative effect of the EDC exposure. The bulk of the results across the board strengthen the evidence for endocrine health-related actions of EDCs. Based on this much more complete understanding of the endocrine principles by which EDCs act, including nonmonotonic dose-responses, low-dose effects, and developmental vulnerability, these findings can be much better translated to human health. Armed with this information, researchers, physicians, and other healthcare providers can guide regulators and policymakers as they make responsible decisions.
35An Umbrella Review of Meta-Analyses Evaluating Associations between Human Health and Exposure to Major Classes of Plastic-Associated Chemicals.PubMed
Christos Symeonides, Edoardo Aromataris, Yannick Mulders, et al.
Ann Glob Health. 2024 Aug 19;90(1):52. doi: 10.5334/aogh.4459. eCollection 2024.
Epidemiological research investigating the impact of exposure to plastics, and plastic-associated chemicals, on human health is critical, especially given exponentially increasing plastic production. In parallel with increasing production, academic research has also increased exponentially both in terms of the primary literature and ensuing systematic reviews with meta-analysis. However, there are few overviews that capture a broad range of chemical classes to present a state of play regarding impacts on human health. We undertook an umbrella review to review the systematic reviews with meta-analyses. Given the complex composition of plastic and the large number of identified plastic-associated chemicals, it was not possible to capture all chemicals that may be present in, and migrate from, plastic materials. We therefore focussed on a defined set of key exposures related to plastics. These were microplastics, due to their ubiquity and potential for human exposure, and the polymers that form the matrix of consumer plastics. We also included plasticisers and flame retardants as the two classes of functional additive with the highest concentration ranges in plastic. In addition, we included bisphenols and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) as two other major plastic-associated chemicals with significant known exposure through food contact materials. Epistemonikos and PubMed were searched for systematic reviews with meta-analyses, meta-analyses, and pooled analyses evaluating the association of plastic polymers, particles (microplastics) or any of the selected groups of high-volume plastic-associated chemicals above, measured directly in human biospecimens, with human health outcomes. Fifty-two systematic reviews were included, with data contributing 759 meta-analyses. Most meta-analyses (78%) were from reviews of moderate methodological quality. Across all the publications retrieved, only a limited number of plastic-associated chemicals within each of the groups searched had been evaluated in relevant meta-analyses, and there were no meta-analyses evaluating polymers, nor microplastics. Synthesised estimates of the effects of plastic-associated chemical exposure were identified for the following health outcome categories in humans: birth, child and adult reproductive, endocrine, child neurodevelopment, nutritional, circulatory, respiratory, skin-related and cancers. Bisphenol A (BPA) is associated with decreased anoclitoral distance in infants, type 2 diabetes (T2D) in adults, insulin resistance in children and adults, polycystic ovary syndrome, obesity and hypertension in children and adults and cardiovascular disease (CVD); other bisphenols have not been evaluated. Phthalates, the only plasticisers identified, are associated with spontaneous pregnancy loss, decreased anogenital distance in boys, insulin resistance in children and adults, with additional associations between certain phthalates and decreased birth weight, T2D in adults, precocious puberty in girls, reduced sperm quality, endometriosis, adverse cognitive development and intelligence quotient (IQ) loss, adverse fine motor and psychomotor development and elevated blood pressure in children and asthma in children and adults. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) but not other flame retardants, and some PFAS were identified and are all associated with decreased birth weight. In general populations, PCBs are associated with T2D in adults and endometriosis, bronchitis in infants, CVD, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) and breast cancer. In PCB-poisoned populations, exposure is associated with overall mortality, mortality from hepatic disease (men), CVD (men and women) and several cancers. PBDEs are adversely associated with children's cognitive development and IQ loss. PBDEs and certain PFAS are associated with changes in thyroid function. PFAS exposure is associated with increased body mass index (BMI) and overweight in children, attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) in girls and allergic rhinitis. Potential protective associations were found, namely abnormal pubertal timing in boys being less common with higher phthalate exposure, increased high-density lipoprotein (HDL) with exposure to mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MEOHP) and reduced incidence of chronic lymphocytic lymphoma (a subtype of NHL) with PCB exposure. Exposure to plastic-associated chemicals is associated with adverse outcomes across a wide range of human health domains, and every plastic-associated chemical group is associated with at least one adverse health outcome. Large gaps remain for many plastic-associated chemicals. For research, we recommend that efforts are harmonised globally to pool resources and extend beyond the chemicals included in this umbrella review. Priorities for primary research, with ensuing systematic reviews, could include micro- and nanoplastics as well as emerging plastic-associated chemicals of concern such as bisphenol analogues and replacement plasticisers and flame retardants. With respect to chemical regulation, we propose that safety for plastic-associated chemicals in humans cannot be assumed at market entry. We therefore recommend that improved independent, systematic hazard testing for all plastic-associated chemicals is undertaken before market release of products. In addition because of the limitations of laboratory-based testing for predicting harm from plastic in humans, independent and systematic post-market bio-monitoring and epidemiological studies are essential to detect potential unforeseen harms.
36Human health impacts of exposure to phthalate plasticizers: An overview of reviews.PubMed
J Eales, A Bethel, T Galloway, et al.
Environ Int. 2022 Jan;158:106903. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.106903. Epub 2021 Sep 30.
In this review of reviews, we overview the current global body of available evidence from structured reviews of epidemiological studies that explore human health outcomes associated with exposure to phthalates (chemical plasticisers commonly found in plastics). We found robust evidence for an association with lower semen quality, neurodevelopment and risk of childhood asthma, and moderate to robust evidence for impact on anogenital distance in boys. We identified moderate evidence for an association between phthalates/metabolites and low birthweight, endometriosis, decreased testosterone, ADHD, Type 2 diabetes and breast/uterine cancer. There was some evidence for other outcomes including anofourchette distance, fetal sex hormones, pre-term birth, lower antral follicle count, reduced oestrodiol, autism, obesity, thyroid function and hearing disorders. We found no reviews of epidemiological human studies on the impact of phthalates from recycled plastics on human health. We recommend that future research should use urine samples as exposure measures, consider confounders in analyses and measure impacts on female reproductive systems. Our findings align with emerging research indicating that health risks can occur at exposure levels below the "safe dose" levels set out by regulators, and are of particular concern given potential additive or synergistic "cocktail effects" of chemicals. This raises important policy and regulatory issues for identifying and controlling plastics and health related impacts and highlights a need for more research into substances of concern entering plastics waste streams via recycling.
37Research progress on the interference effects of plasticizers on maternal behavior and its potential mechanisms.PubMed
Ying Yong Sheng Tai Xue Bao. 2023 Nov;34(11):3157-3168. doi: 10.13287/j.1001-9332.202311.028.
Environmental endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), known as environmental hormones, are exogenous chemicals that can disrupt hormone levels and cause dysfunction of the secretory system in humans and animals. Plasticizers, which are widely used EDCs, are commonly used to enhance the flexibility of plastic products. As plastics age and wear, however, they can leach into the environment and enter the bodies of animals through various pathways such as the digestive tract and skin. They can lead to estrogen-like effects and have substantial reproductive toxicity. Residual plasticizer concentrations in the environment are typically low. Unlike high doses that induce acute damage to the reproductive system, low doses of plasticizers do not cause macroscopic harm and thus its reproductive toxicity is often overlooked for extended periods. An increasing number of studies conducted on humans and mice in recent years have demonstrated that low doses of plasticizers can induce reproductive toxicity by interfering with maternal behavior. Prenatal exposure to plasticizers can result in abnormal postnatal maternal behavior. Female offspring also exhibit significantly low maternal care, lactation, and other behaviors in adulthood, which may persist for multiple generations, significantly disrupting the animal breeding process and impacting the health and well-being of newborn pups. The underlying mechanisms have not been systematically summarized. The risk of continuous exposure to low-dose plasticizers in humans and animals has increased due to the extensive utilization of plastic and rubber products in modern production and lifestyle patterns. It is thus crucial to conduct a systematic review on the effects of low-dose plasticizers on maternal behavior. We reviewed the research progress on the disruptive effects of plasticizers on animals' maternal behavior and concluded that these effects are primarily caused by inducing oxidative stress damage and DNA methylation reprogramming in the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis, as well as disrupting the balance of the thyroid system and causing intestinal microbial disorders. It would offer a novel perspective for future studies about the influence of plasticizers and other environmental hormones on maternal behavior in domesticated animals.
38Microplastics and plastics-associated contaminants in food and beverages; Global trends, concentrations, and human exposure.PubMed
Madushika Sewwandi, Hasintha Wijesekara, Anushka Upamali Rajapaksha, et al.
Environ Pollut. 2023 Jan 15;317:120747. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120747. Epub 2022 Nov 25.
Microplastics has become a global concern due to their ubiquitous presence which poses unavoidable human exposure risks. Geographical distribution and yearly trends of research on microplastics, food, and beverages do not exist. Thus, no overall account is available regarding the presence of microplastics and plastics-associated contaminants in food and beverages. Hence, this attempt is to review the geographical distribution of studies through a brief bibliometric analysis and the plastics-associated contaminants including plasticizers and microplastics in food and beverages. Estimated microplastic consumption has been listed for the pool of publications reviewed here. Further, this review discusses the ingestion potency of micropollutants associated with microplastics, possible health impacts, and existing challenges. Global trend in research exponentially increased after 2018 and China is leading. Studies on microplastics were limited to a few beverages and food; milk, beer, tea, refreshing drinks, salt, sugar, honey, etc., whereas seafood and drinking water have been extensively studied. Publications on plastic-additives were reported in two ways; migration of plastic-additives from packaging by leaching and the presence of plastic-additives in food and beverages. Bisphenol A and bis(2-Ethylhexyl) phthalate were the most frequently reported both in food and beverages. Exposure of packaging material to high temperatures predominantly involves plastic-additive contamination in food and beverages. Microplastics-bound micropollutants can also be ingested through food and beverages; however, a lack of knowledge exists. The complex matrix of food or beverages and the absence of standard procedures for analysis of microplastics and micropollutants exist as challenges. More investigations on the presence of microplastics and plastic-additives in food and beverage are urgent needs to a better assessment of potential human exposure and human health risk.
39Bisphenol A exposure modulates ovarian cancer gene expression and oxidative stress markers: a case-control study.PubMed
Shimaa Ahmed Alsaeed, Ahmed M Lymona, Adel Atef, et al.
Food Chem Toxicol. 2025 Oct 16;207:115810. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2025.115810.
In this case-control study conducted at Cairo's National Cancer Institute, the association between bisphenol A (BPA), an endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC), and ovarian cancer was investigated. BPA levels in the urine, oxidative stress markers (reactive oxygen species (ROS) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity), and Keratin 4 (KRT4) gene expression were analyzed in 30 patients and 30 controls. Significant risk factors for BPA exposure included consuming microwave meals, consuming canned beverages, using polyvinyl chloride (PVC) food storage, eating fast food, handling thermal paper, exposure to dust, and recurrent hospitalizations. Compared with normal controls, ovarian cancer patients presented increased BPA levels, ROS, and KRT4 expression, along with reduced SOD activity (p < 0.001). A strong positive correlation was found between BPA and KRT4, indicating that KRT4 may be a potential biomarker. The cutoff values for urinary BPA and KRT4 achieved 100 % sensitivity and specificity in distinguishing patients from controls. These findings suggest that BPA plays a role in ovarian cancer pathogenesis, likely through oxidative stress and gene dysregulation. This study emphasizes the importance of minimizing BPA exposure (e.g., by reducing the use of canned or packaged foods) and calls for larger studies to further investigate the role of EDCs in hormone-dependent cancers.
40Organophosphate Esters: Are These Flame Retardants and Plasticizers Affecting Children's Health?PubMed
Brett T Doherty, Stephanie C Hammel, Julie L Daniels, et al.
Curr Environ Health Rep. 2019 Dec;6(4):201-213. doi: 10.1007/s40572-019-00258-0.
PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Organophosphate esters (OPEs) are applied to a variety of consumer products, primarily as flame retardants and plasticizers. OPEs can leach out of products over time and are consequently prevalent in the environment and frequently detected in human biomonitoring studies. Exposure during pregnancy is of particular concern as OPEs have recently been detected in placental tissues, suggesting they may be transferred to the developing infant. Also, studies have now shown that children typically experience higher exposure to several OPEs compared with adults, indicating they may be disproportionately impacted by these compounds. This review summarizes the current literature on reproductive and child health outcomes of OPE exposures and highlights areas for future research. RECENT FINDINGS: Experimental animal studies demonstrate potential for OPEs to adversely impact health, and a limited number of epidemiologic studies conducted in adult cohorts suggest that OPEs may interfere with the endocrine system. Neurodevelopment is perhaps the most well studied of children's health endpoints, and several studies indicate that prenatal and early life OPE exposures impact both cognitive and behavioral development. Associations have also been reported with reproductive outcomes (e.g., fertilization and pregnancy loss) and with the timing of parturition and preterm birth. Cross-sectional studies also demonstrate associations between OPEs and respiratory health outcomes, allergic disease, and measures of adiposity. An expanding body of research demonstrates that OPEs are associated with adverse reproductive health and birth outcomes, asthma and allergic disease, early growth and adiposity, and neurodevelopment. Still, additional research is urgently needed to elucidate the full impact of OPEs on children's health.
41Microplastics and environmental pollutants: Key interaction and toxicology in aquatic and soil environments.PubMed
Yujia Xiang, Li Jiang, Yaoyu Zhou, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2022 Jan 15;422:126843. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126843. Epub 2021 Aug 8.
Nowadays, a growing number of microplastics are released into the environment due to the extensive use and inappropriate management of plastic products. With the increasing body of evidence about the pollution and hazards of microplastics, microplastics have drawn major attention from governments and the scientific community. As a kind of emerging and persistent environmental pollutants, microplastics have recently been detected on a variety of substrates in the world. Therefore, this paper reviews the recent progress in identifying the sources of microplastics in soil, water, and atmosphere and describing the transport and fate of microplastics in the terrestrial, aquatic and atmospheric ecosystems for revealing the circulation of microplastics in the ecosystem. In addition, considering the persistence of microplastics, this study elucidates the interactions of microplastics with other pollutants in the environment (i.e., organic pollutants, heavy metals) with emphasis on toxicity and accumulation, providing a novel insight into the ecological risks of microplastics in the environment. The negative impacts of microplastics on organisms and environmental health are also reviewed to reveal the environmental hazards of microplastics. The knowledge gaps and key research priorities of microplastics are identified to better understand and mitigate the environmental risks of microplastics.
42Synergistic effect of PS-MPs and Cd on male reproductive toxicity: Ferroptosis via Keap1-Nrf2 pathway.PubMed
Yuzhi Lan, Liehai Hu, Xiaoyan Feng, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2024 Jan 5;461:132584. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132584. Epub 2023 Sep 20.
It has been wildly reported that microplastics (MPs) can adsorb heavy metals and act as carriers for their transport into organisms. However, the combined toxicity of MPs and heavy metals remains poorly studied. In this study, we established single or co-exposure (i.e. complex/combined exposure) mice models to investigate the combined toxicity of MPs and cadmium (Cd) on male reproduction. The complexation of MPs and Cd enhanced the bioavailability of Cd, while the combination of MPs and Cd exerted synergistic effect. Ultimately, the co-exposure was reported to enhance the reproduction toxicity by single exposure, which reflected in testicular structure, spermatogenesis and sex hormone synthesis. More in-depth mechanistic investigation suggested that MPs and Cd synergistically inhibited the Keap1-Nrf2 pathway and its downstream genes, induced lipid peroxidation and ferroptosis, ultimately caused damage to reproductive structures and functions. Our results highlighted the synergistic effect of MPs and Cd on the reproductive toxicity in male mammals for the first time, which also provided valuable insights into the combined toxicity mechanisms of MPs and other pollutants.
43Exploring the Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Macromolecular Structure and Functions.PubMed
Manka Marycleopha, Bachir Yaou Balarabe, Satish Kumar, et al.
J Appl Toxicol. 2025 Sep 6. doi: 10.1002/jat.4915.
Microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) are common pollutants that engage with proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and other biomolecules, damaging cell structure. This review goes beyond simply listing where MNPs are found to explore how they cause harm, detailing mechanisms such as oxidative stress, endocrine disruption, genotoxicity, protein misfolding, lipid membrane destabilization, and epigenetic changes. Propose an integrated mechanistic hypothesis connecting these processes via oxidative epigenetic feedback loops, size-dependent organelle targeting, and pollutant corona effects, with potential implications for cellular aging and transgenerational outcomes. Emphasize dose-response alignment, ecological relevance, and the biological significance of reported concentrations. Identify key knowledge gaps, especially regarding chronic low-dose exposures, co-pollutant interactions, and protein corona dynamics. This framework aims to enhance risk assessment, regulatory strategies, and mitigation of MNP-related ecological and human health risks.
44Micro- and nanoplastic induced cellular toxicity in mammals: A review.PubMed
Amrita Banerjee, Weilin L Shelver
Sci Total Environ. 2021 Feb 10;755(Pt 2):142518. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142518. Epub 2020 Sep 25.
Plastic based products are ubiquitous due to their tremendous utility in our daily lives. However, the limited biodegradable nature of plastics has recently raised pollution concerns globally, especially micro- and nanoplastics. These anthropogenic pollutants are either manufactured specifically in the small size range for various commercial applications or formed due to fragmentation of macro plastics in the environment. Micro- and nanoplastics are currently widespread in the oceans, freshwater bodies, land and even present in our food. The biological effects of micro- and nanoplastics on aquatic organisms are well documented but their impacts on mammalian system have not been rigorously investigated. This review discusses the potential routes of exposure to micro- and nanoplastics, biological effects of these particles in mammalian cells, factors influencing toxicity, and the probable mechanisms of cytotoxicity. In general, small size, positive charge, high dose, and presence of toxic additives or pollutants in the micro/nanoplastics appear to induce cellular toxicity through oxidative stress, membrane damage, immune response and genotoxicity. Understanding the cellular fate and toxicity of these materials may help extrapolate risks to mammals.
45Polystyrene microplastics promote liver inflammation by inducing the formation of macrophages extracellular traps.PubMed
Kai Yin, Dongxu Wang, Yue Zhang, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2023 Jun 15;452:131236. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131236. Epub 2023 Mar 20.
Microplastics (MPs), a new and increasing environmental pollutant, can cause ongoing damage to organisms. Although recent studies have revealed mechanisms of action for some of the hepatotoxicity caused by MPs, the role-played by cellular interactions, particularly immune cells, in the process of liver injury has not been elucidated. In the present study, 5-μm polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) induced liver inflammation as well as the formation of Macrophage extracellular traps (METs). Macrophage and LMH cell co-culture systems confirmed that PS-MPs-induced METs promote inflammation in hepatocytes. Mechanistically, macrophages actively phagocytose particles after 4 h of exposure to PS-MPs. Subsequently PS-MPs elevated ROS levels and disrupt mitochondrial kinetic homeostasis. Further activation of mitochondrial autophagy and lysosomes. After phagocytosis of PS-MPs by macrophages for 12 h, continued autophagy and lysosome activation eventually lead to lysosome rupture and release of calcium ions to induce the formation of METs. Blocking ROS (NAC) and autophagy (3MA) partially alleviated mitochondrial and lysosomal damage and thus inhibited the formation of METs induced by PS-MPs. NAC also delayed the onset of respiratory burst to alleviate METs formation. In conclusion, our study reveals the mechanism of METs formation in liver inflammation induced by PS-MPs exposure and suggests that lysosomal damage may be one of the key players in the formation of METs induced by PS-MPs.
46Polystyrene microplastics induce hepatotoxicity and disrupt lipid metabolism in the liver organoids.PubMed
Wei Cheng, Xiaolan Li, Yue Zhou, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2022 Feb 1;806(Pt 1):150328. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150328. Epub 2021 Sep 15.
Microplastic particles (MP) has been detected in the environment widespread. Human beings are inevitably exposed to MP via multiple routines. However, the hazard identifications, as direct evidence of exposure and health risk, have not been fully characterized in human beings. Many studies suggest the liver is a potential target organ, but currently no study regarding the MP on human liver has been reported. In this study, we used a novel in vitro 3D model, the liver organoids (LOs) generated from human pluripotent stem cells, as an alternative model to the human liver, to explore the adverse biological effect of 1 μm polystyrene-MP (PS-MP) microbeads applying a non-static exposure approach. When the LOs were exposed to 0.25, 2.5 and 25 μg/mL PS-MP (the lowest one was relevant to the environmental concentrations, calculated to be 102 ± 7 items/mL). The potential mechanisms of PS-MP induced hepatotoxicity and lipotoxicity, in aspects of cytotoxicity, levels of key molecular markers, ATP production, alteration in lipid metabolism, ROS generation, oxidative stress and inflammation response, were determined. Specifically, it has been firstly observed that PS-MP could increase the expression of hepatic HNF4A and CYP2E1. Based on these findings, the potential adverse outcome pathways (AOPs) relevant to PS-MP were proposed, and the potential risks of PS-MP on liver steatosis, fibrosis and cancer were implicated. The combined application of novel LOs model and AOPs framework provides a new insight into the risk assessment of MP. Further studies are anticipated to validate the hepatotoxic molecular mechanism of PS-MP based on HNF4A or CYP2E1, and to investigate the MP-induced physical damage and its relationship to hepatic adverse effect for human beings. CAPSULE: Microplastics cause hepatotoxicity and disrupt lipid metabolism in the human pluripotent stem cells-derived liver organoids, providing evidence for human implication.
47Inhaled polystyrene microplastics impaired lung function through pulmonary flora/TLR4-mediated iron homeostasis imbalance.PubMed
Huiwen Kang, Danyang Huang, Wei Zhang, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2024 Oct 10;946:174300. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174300. Epub 2024 Jun 25.
Microplastics (MPs) have been found in the air, human nasal cavity, and lung, suggesting that the respiratory tract is one of the important exposure routes for MPs. The lung is a direct target organ for injury from inhaled MPs, but data on lung injury from longer-term exposure to environmental doses of MPs are limited, and the mechanisms remain unclear. Here, C57BL/6 J mice were treated with 5 μm polystyrene (PS)-MPs by intratracheal instillation (0.6, 3, and 15 mg/kg) for 60 days to establish MPs exposure model. We found that PS-MPs lead to increased collagen fibers and decreased lung barrier permeability and lung function in lung tissue. Mechanistically, the abundance of gram-negative bacteria in the pulmonary flora increased after inhalation of PS-MPs, causing lipopolysaccharide (LPS) release. The expression of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), the key receptor of LPS, was increased, and ferroptosis occurred in lung tissue cells. Further in vitro intervention experiments were performed, pulmonary flora/TLR4-induced imbalance of lung iron homeostasis is an important mechanism of PS-MPs-induced lung injury. Our study provides new evidence for lung injury caused by environmental doses of MPs and strategies to prevent it through longer-term dynamic observation.
48Polystyrenenanoplastics lead to ferroptosis in the lungs.PubMed
Yuhao Wu, Junke Wang, Tianxin Zhao, et al.
J Adv Res. 2024 Feb;56:31-41. doi: 10.1016/j.jare.2023.03.003. Epub 2023 Mar 17.
INTRODUCTION: It has been shown that polystyrenenanoplastic (PS-NP) exposure induces toxicity in the lungs. OBJECTIVES: This study aims to provide foundational evidence to corroborate that ferroptosis and abnormal HIF-1α activity are the main factors contributing to pulmonary dysfunction induced by PS-NP exposure. METHODS: Fifty male and female C57BL/6 mice were exposed to distilled water or 100 nm or 200 nm PS-NPs via intratracheal instillation for 7 consecutive days. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and Masson trichrome staining were performed to observe the histomorphological changes in the lungs. To clarify the mechanisms of PS-NP-induced lung injury, we used 100 μg/ml, 200 μg/ml and 400 μg/ml 100 or 200 nm PS-NPs to treat the human lung bronchial epithelial cell line BEAS-2B for 24 h. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) of BEAS-2B cells was performed following exposure. The levels of glutathione, malondialdehyde, ferrous iron (Fe), and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were measured. The expression levels of ferroptotic proteins were detected in BEAS-2B cells and lung tissues by Western blotting. Western blotting, immunohistochemistry, and immunofluorescence were used to evaluate the HIF-1α/HO-1 signaling pathway activity. RESULTS: H&E staining revealed substantial perivascular lymphocytic inflammation in a bronchiolocentric pattern, and Masson trichrome staining demonstrated critical collagen deposits in the lungs after PS-NP exposure. RNA-seq revealed that the differentially expressed genes in PS-NP-exposed BEAS-2B cells were enriched in lipid metabolism and iron ion binding processes. After PS-NP exposure, the levels of malondialdehyde, Fe, and ROS were increased, but glutathione level was decreased. The expression levels of ferroptotic proteins were altered significantly. These results verified that PS-NP exposure led to pulmonary injury through ferroptosis. Finally, we discovered that the HIF-1α/HO-1 signaling pathway played an important role in regulating ferroptosis in the PS-NP-exposed lung injury. CONCLUSION: PS-NP exposure caused ferroptosis in bronchial epithelial cells by activating the HIF-1α/HO-1 signaling pathway, and eventually led to lung injury.
49Inhalation exposure to polystyrene nanoplastics induces chronic obstructive pulmonary disease-like lung injury in mice through multi-dimensional assessment.PubMed
Sheng Yang, Tianyi Zhang, Yiling Ge, et al.
Environ Pollut. 2024 Apr 15;347:123633. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123633. Epub 2024 Feb 27.
Nanoplastics are widely distributed in indoor and outdoor air and can be easily inhaled into human lungs. However, limited studies have investigated the impact of nanoplastics on inhalation toxicities, especially on the initiation and progression of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). To fill the gap, the present study used oronasal aspiration to develop mice models. Mice were exposed to polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) at three concentrations, as well as the corresponding controls, for acute, subacute, and subchronic exposure. As a result, PS-NPs could accumulate in exposed mice lungs and influence lung organ coefficient. Besides, PS-NPs induced local and systemic oxidative stress, inflammation, and protease-antiprotease imbalance, resulting in decreased respiratory function and COPD-like lesions. Meanwhile, PS-NPs could trigger the subcellular mechanism to promote COPD development by causing mitochondrial dysfunctions and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Mechanistically, ferroptosis played an important role in the COPD-like lung injury induced by PS-NPs. In summary, the present study comprehensively and systematically indicates that PS-NPs can damage human respiratory health and increase the risk for COPD.
50Integrin A5B1-mediated endocytosis of polystyrene nanoplastics: Implications for human lung disease and therapeutic targets.PubMed
Mingming Han, Ji Liang, Kai Wang, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2024 Nov 25;953:176017. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.176017. Epub 2024 Sep 3.
The extensive use of plastic products has exacerbated micro/nanoplastic (MPs/NPs) pollution in the atmosphere, increasing the incidence of respiratory diseases and lung cancer. This study investigates the uptake and cytotoxicity mechanisms of polystyrene (PS) NPs in human lung epithelial cells. Transcriptional analysis revealed significant changes in cell adhesion pathways following PS-NPs exposure. Integrin α5β1-mediated endocytosis was identified as a key promoter of PS-NPs entry into lung epithelial cells. Overexpression of integrin α5β1 enhanced PS-NPs internalization, exacerbating mitochondrial Ca2+ dysfunction and depolarization, which induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Mitochondrial dysfunction triggered by PS-NPs led to oxidative damage, inflammation, DNA damage, and necrosis, contributing to lung diseases. This study elucidates the molecular mechanism by which integrin α5β1 facilitates PS-NPs internalization and enhances its cytotoxicity, offering new insights into potential therapeutic targets for microplastic-induced lung diseases.
51Nanoplastics from ground polyethylene terephthalate food containers: Genotoxicity in human lung epithelial A549 cells.PubMed
Mohammad Alzaben, Regina Burve, Katrin Loeschner, et al.
Mutat Res Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen. 2023 Nov-Dec;892:503705. doi: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2023.503705. Epub 2023 Oct 10.
The ubiquitous pollution of plastic particles in most environmental matrices leads to concern about any potential adverse effects on human health. Most studies on the toxicological effect of nanoplastics has focused on standard particles of polystyrene. In reality humans are exposed to a large variety of different types and sizes of plastic material via oral intake and inhalation. In this study, we investigated the effect of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) nanoplastic particles from ground food containers from a supermarket. The aim was to investigate a possible link between exposure to PET nanoplastics and genotoxic response in a cell model of the human airway epithelial (A549) cells. Further, we investigated the combined effect of PET and chemicals known to alter the cellular redox state, as a model of partially compromised antioxidant defense system. DNA damage was assessed by the alkaline comet assay. The ground PET nanoplastics have a mean hydrodynamic diameter of 136 nm in water. The results showed that PET exposure led to increased reactive oxygen species production (approximately 30 % increase compared to unexposed cells). In addition, exposure to PET nanoplastic increased the level of DNA strand breaks (net increase = 0.10 lesions/10 base pair, 95 % confidence interval: 0.01, 0.18 lesions/10 base pair). Pre- or post-exposure to hydrogen peroxide or buthionine sulfoximine did not lead to a higher level of DNA damage. Overall, the study shows that exposure to PET nanoplastics increases both intracellular reactive oxygen production and DNA damage in A549 cells.
52The impaired response of nasal epithelial cells to microplastic stimulation in asthma and COPD.PubMed
Magdalena Paplińska-Goryca, Paulina Misiukiewicz-Stępień, Monika Wróbel, et al.
Sci Rep. 2025 Feb 4;15(1):4242. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-87242-x.
Microplastic particles from the air are inhaled and accumulate in the lungs, potentially causing immunological reactions and airway tissue injury. This study aimed to evaluate the biological effects of polyamide fibres on nasal epithelium co-cultivated with macrophages in control, asthma, and COPD groups. Nasal epithelial cells alone or in co-culture with monocyte-derived macrophages were exposed to polyamide fibres for 48 h. We identified 8 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in controls, 309 DEGs in asthma (including ANKRD36C, BCL2L15, FCGBP, and IL-19), and 22 DEGs in COPD (e.g., BCL2L15, IL-19, CAPN14, PGBD5, PTPRH), particularly in epithelial/moMφ co-cultures. Microplastic exposure induced inflammatory cytokine secretion only for IL-8 production in controls (epithelial/ moMφs co-culture) and asthmatic (monoculture) epithelial cells in contrast to PM, which was a strong inflammatory inducer. Gene Ontology analysis revealed that microplastic exposure affected sterol and cholesterol biosynthesis, secondary alcohol metabolism, and acetyl-CoA metabolism in asthma, and cell motility, chemokine signaling, leukocyte migration, and chemotaxis in COPD. Microplastic stimulation altered the response of airway epithelial cells in obstructive lung diseases differently than in controls, linking to Th2 inflammation, stress response modulation, and carcinogenesis. Asthmatic and COPD epithelial cells are more susceptible to damage from microplastic fibre exposure.
53Mechanism of circRNA_SMG6 mediating lung macrophage ECM degradation via miR-570-3p in microplastics-induced emphysema.PubMed
Xiaoxue Sun, Tian Xiao, Junjie Qin, et al.
Environ Int. 2024 May;187:108701. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2024.108701. Epub 2024 Apr 25.
Microplastics (MPs) are plastic particles < 5 mm in diameter, of which polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) are representative type. The extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation of macrophages is associated with the development of emphysema. Additionally, circular RNAs (circRNAs) have a regulatory role in epigenetic mechanisms related to lung disease. However, the mechanisms of the ECM degradation and circRNAs in MPs-induced emphysema are still unclear. In our study, Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were treated with 0, 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 mg/m 100 nm PS-MPs for 90 days in an inhalation experiment. PS-MPs-exposed rats showed elevated airway resistance and pulmonary dysfunction. Lung histopathology exhibited inflammatory cell infiltration, septal thickening and alveolar dilatation. Exposure to PS-MPs was able to induce elevated levels of ECM degradation-related markers MMP9 and MMP12, as well as reduced levels of elastin in rat lung tissues. CircRNA_SMG6 is a non-coding RNA (ncRNA) with a homologous circular structure in human, rat and mouse. The expression level of circRNA_SMG6 was decreased in both rat lung tissues exposed to PS-MPs and PS-MPs-treated THP-1 cells. The luciferase reporter gene demonstrated that circRNA_SMG6 combined with miR-570-3p and co-regulated PTEN, the target gene of miR-570-3p. Moreover, overexpression of circRNA_SMG6 or inhibition of miR-570-3p attenuated PS-MPs-induced ECM degradation in THP-1 cells. Taken together, circRNA_SMG6 may have a significant function in the deterioration of emphysema caused by PS-MPs-induced macrophage ECM degradation by regulating miR-570-3p. Our findings reveal a novel mechanism of emphysema caused by PS-MPs and provide valuable information for assessing the health risks of MPs.
54Pulmonary hazards of nanoplastic particles: a study using polystyrene in in vitro models of the alveolar and bronchial epithelium.PubMed
Sara Michelini, Safaa Mawas, Ema Kurešepi, et al.
J Nanobiotechnology. 2025 May 28;23(1):388. doi: 10.1186/s12951-025-03419-6.
BACKGROUND: Nanoplastics (NPs) are released into the environment through the degradation of plastic objects, leading to human exposure. Due to their small size, concerns have been raised about the potential hazards to the respiratory tract, as ultrafine and nanoparticles are known to penetrate till the alveolar regions of the lungs, potentially impairing their functions. Thus, in the present study, we used model polystyrene nanoparticles doped with the fluorescent metal europium (PS-Eu) to enhance the understanding of NPs hazard and investigate adverse outcomes associated with exposure in human lungs using alveolar (A549) and bronchial (Calu-3) cell models grown in 2D and 3D submerged conditions or quasi air-liquid interface (ALI) conditions (3D). RESULTS: Briefly, after in-dept physicochemical characterization of the particles, we assessed their impact on ROS production, cell viability (AlamarBlue and lactate dehydrogenase assays) and barrier integrity (lucifer yellow assay and TEER measurement), finding no negative effects in either model. However, in alveolar cells, particles increased acidic organelle activity. Transmission electron microscopy and Raman microscopy showed, in both models, a dose- and cell-dependent particle uptake with PS-Eu accumulating in numerous and large endo-lysosomes, which, in transwells-grown A549 cells, often contained also lamellar bodies (LBs), organelles involved in surfactants storage and secretion. After extensively quantifying surfactant proteins (SP) in the pellet and supernatant fractions of treated A549 cells, we observed a significant reduction in several members of this family, including surfactant protein B, which is crucial for lamellar body formation and surface tension regulation in the lungs. In quasi-ALI Calu-3 cultures instead, PS-Eu significantly upregulated interleukin 6 (IL-6) and increased transforming growth factor beta β (TGF-β), zonula occludens 1 (ZO-1), and mucin (MUC) 5B mRNA expressions causing a moderate proinflammatory response. CONCLUSION: Our results show that PS-Eu exposure does not induce acute cytotoxicity in these models, but affects cell-specific functions like surfactant, mucin, and cytokine production. This underscores the limitations of relying solely on standard cytotoxicity tests for particle hazard assessment and highlights the importance of investigating cell function-specific signaling pathways. To support researchers in hazard assessment, we propose specific classes of biomarkers to test in in vitro lung models.
55Impacts of polystyrene microplastic on the gut barrier, microbiota and metabolism of mice.PubMed
Yuanxiang Jin, Liang Lu, Wenqing Tu, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2019 Feb 1;649:308-317. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.353. Epub 2018 Aug 28.
Microplastics (MPs), which are new environmental pollutants with a diameter of <5 mm, have received wide attention in recent years. However, there are still very limited data regarding the risks of MPs to animals, especially higher mammals. In this study, we exposed male mice to 5 μm pristine and fluorescent polystyrene MP for six weeks. The results showed that the polystyrene MP was observed in the guts of mice and could reduce the intestinal mucus secretion and cause damage the intestinal barrier function. In addition, high-throughput sequencing of the V3-V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene was used to explore the change of the gut microbiota composition in the cecal content. At the phylum level, the content of Actinobacteria decreased significantly in the polystyrene MP-treated group. The PD whole-tree indexes of the alpha diversity and principal component analysis (PCA) of the beta diversity indicated that the diversity of gut microbiota was altered after polystyrene MP exposure. At the genus level, a total of 15 types of bacteria changed significantly after exposure to polystyrene MP. Furthermore, the predicted KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) metabolic pathway differences indicated that the main metabolic pathways of the functional genes in the microbial community were significantly influenced by the polystyrene MP. In addition, indexes of amino acid metabolism and bile acid metabolism in the serum were analyzed after polystyrene MP exposure. These results indicated that polystyrene MP caused metabolic disorders. In conclusion, the polystyrene MP induced gut microbiota dysbiosis, intestinal barrier dysfunction and metabolic disorders in mice. This study provided more data on the toxicity of MPs in a terrestrial organism to aid in the assessment of the health risks of polystyrene MP to animals.
56Microplastic: A potential threat to human and animal health by interfering with the intestinal barrier function and changing the intestinal microenvironment.PubMed
Zhuizui Huang, You Weng, Qichen Shen, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2021 Sep 1;785:147365. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147365. Epub 2021 Apr 27.
Plastics are widely used in many fields due to their stable physical and chemical properties, and their global production and usage increase significantly every year, which leads to the accumulation of microplastics in the entire ecosystem. Numerous studies have shown that microplastics (MPs) have harmful effects on living organisms. This review aims to provide a comprehensive conclusion of the current knowledge of the impacts of MPs on the stability of the gut microenvironment, especially on the gut barrier. Studies showed that exposure to MPs could cause oxidative damage and inflammation in the gut, as well as the destruction of the gut epithelium, reduction of the mucus layer, microbial disorders, and immune cell toxicity. Although there are few reports directly related to humans, we hoped that this review could bring together more and more evidence that exposure to MPs results in disturbances of the intestinal microenvironment. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate their threats to human health further.
57Nano- and micro-polystyrene plastics interfered the gut barrier function mediated by exosomal miRNAs in rats.PubMed
Zhuizui Huang, You Weng, Qichen Shen, et al.
Environ Pollut. 2023 Oct 15;335:122275. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.122275. Epub 2023 Jul 31.
Microplastics (MPs) are widely distributed in the global environment, entering and accumulating in organisms in various ways and posing health threats. MPs can damage intestine; however, the mechanism by which MPs cause intestinal damage in rats is unclear. Here, rats were exposed to 50 nm PS-NPs or 5 μm PS-MPs for 4 weeks to evaluate the possible effects on intestinal barrier function and exosomal miRNAs expressions. The results showed that PS-NPs or PS-MPs disrupted the gut microbiota and affected gut barrier function at the biological level. In addition, PS-NPs and PS-MPs altered the composition of exosomal miRNAs in the intestinal and serum. Both PS-NPs and PS-MPs decreased the expression of miR-126a-3p in the intestinal and serum exosomes, which is an important signalling molecule involved in MPs induced gut barrier function disorder. More importantly, both in vitro and in vivo experiments indicated that miR-126a-3p was closely related to oxidative damage of intestinal cells through the PI3K-Akt pathway and eventually promote cell apoptosis by regulating the target gene of PIK3R2. Our study suggested that PS-NPs and PS-MPs could affect rat intestinal barrier function through an exosomal miRNA mediated pathway.
58Polystyrene Microplastics Causes Diarrhea and Impairs Intestinal Angiogenesis through the ROS/METTL3 Pathway.PubMed
Dongbin Zou, Yun Yang, Fengjie Ji, et al.
J Agric Food Chem. 2024 Jul 31;72(30):16638-16650. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.4c03238. Epub 2024 Jul 16.
Due to the immature intestinal digestion, immunity, and barrier functions, weaned infants are more susceptible to pathogens and develop diarrhea. Microplastics (MPs), pervasive contaminants in food, water, and air, have unknown effects on the intestinal development of weaned infants. This study explored the impact of polystyrene MPs on intestinal development using a weaned piglet model. Piglets in the control group received a basal diet, and those in the experimental groups received a basal diet contaminated with 150 mg/kg polystyrene MPs. The results showed that exposure to polystyrene MPs increased the diarrhea incidence and impaired the intestinal barrier function of weaned piglets. Notably, the exposure led to oxidative stress and inflammation in the intestine. Furthermore, polystyrene MPs-treated weaned piglets showed a reduced level of intestinal angiogenesis. Mechanistically, polystyrene MPs suppressed methyltransferase-like 3 (METTL3) expression by increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, consequently destabilizing angiogenic factors' mRNA and hindering intestinal angiogenesis. In summary, polystyrene MPs contamination in the diet increases diarrhea and compromises intestinal angiogenesis through the ROS/METTL3 pathway, demonstrating their toxic effects on the intestine health of weaned infants.
59Epigallocatechin-3-gallate ameliorates polystyrene microplastics-induced anxiety-like behavior in mice by modulating gut microbe homeostasis.PubMed
Jian-Zheng Yang, Kai-Kai Zhang, Yi Liu, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2023 Sep 20;892:164619. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164619. Epub 2023 Jun 2.
Polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) have emerged as a concerning pollutant in modern society due to their widespread production and usage. Despite ongoing research efforts, the impact of PS-MPs on mammalian behavior and the mechanisms driving these effects remain incompletely elucidated. Consequently, effective strategies for prevention have yet to be developed. To fill these gaps, C57BL/6 mice were orally administered with 5 μm PS-MPs for 28 consecutive days in this study. The open-field test and the elevated plus-maze test were performed to evaluate the anxiety-like behavior, 16S rRNA sequencing and untargeted metabolomics analysis were used to detect the changes of gut microbiota and serum metabolites. Our results indicated that PS-MPs exposure activated hippocampal inflammation and induced anxiety-like behavior in mice. Meanwhile, PS-MPs disturbed the gut microbiota, impaired the intestinal barrier, and aroused peripheral inflammation. Specifically, PS-MPs increased the abundance of pathogenic microbiota Tuzzerella, while lowered the abundance of probiotics Faecalibaculum and Akkermansia. Interestingly, eliminating the gut microbiota protected against the deleterious effects of PS-MPs on intestinal barrier integrity, reduced the levels of peripheral inflammatory cytokines, and ameliorated anxiety-like behavior. Additionally, green tea's primary bioactive constituent, epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), optimized gut microbial composition, improved intestinal barrier function, reduced peripheral inflammation, and exerted anti-anxiety effects by inhibiting the hippocampal TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling cascade. EGCG also remodeled serum metabolism, especially modulated purine metabolism. These findings suggested that gut microbiota participates in PS-MPs-induced anxiety-like behavior by modulating the gut-brain axis, and that EGCG could serve as a potential preventive strategy.
60Gut dysbiosis exacerbates inflammatory liver injury induced by environmentally relevant concentrations of nanoplastics via the gut-liver axis.PubMed
Sugan Xia, Chaoyue Yan, Guodong Cai, et al.
J Environ Sci (China). 2025 Sep;155:250-266. doi: 10.1016/j.jes.2024.11.022. Epub 2024 Nov 23.
As an emerging and potentially threatening pollutant, nanoplastics (NPs) have received considerable global attention. Due to their physical properties and diminutive size, NPs ingestion can more easily cross biological barriers and enter the human and animal body. Despite reports of hepatotoxicity associated with NPs, their impact and potential underlying mechanisms remain elusive. In this study, we investigated the impact of NPs at concentrations found in the environment on the gut flora, intestinal barrier function, liver pyroptosis, and inflammation in mice following 12 weeks of exposure. To further validate the involvement of gut flora in inflammatory liver damage caused by NPs, we utilized antibiotics to remove the intestinal flora and performed fecal microbiota transplantation. We confirmed that NPs exposure altered the gut microbiota composition, with a notable rise in the proportions of Alloprevotella and Ileibacterium while causing a decrease in the relative proportions of Dubosiella. This disruption also affected the gut barrier, increasing lipopolysaccharides in circulation and promoting liver pyroptosis. Importantly, mice receiving fecal transplants from NPs-treated mice showed intestinal barrier damage, liver pyroptosis, and inflammation. However, NPs effects on the intestinal barrier and liver pyroptosis were attenuated by antibiotics depletion of the commensal microbiota. In summary, our current research revealed that extended exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of NPs resulted in inflammatory damage to the liver. Additionally, we have identified for the first time that imbalances in intestinal flora are crucial in liver pyroptosis induced by NPs.
61Adverse health effects of emerging contaminants on inflammatory bowel disease.PubMed
Xuejie Chen, Sidan Wang, Xueyi Mao, et al.
Front Public Health. 2023 Feb 24;11:1140786. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1140786. eCollection 2023.
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is becoming increasingly prevalent with the improvement of people's living standards in recent years, especially in urban areas. The emerging environmental contaminant is a newly-proposed concept in the progress of industrialization and modernization, referring to synthetic chemicals that were not noticed or researched before, which may lead to many chronic diseases, including IBD. The emerging contaminants mainly include microplastics, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, chemical herbicides, heavy metals, and persisting organic pollutants. In this review, we summarize the adverse health effect of these emerging contaminants on humans and their relationships with IBD. Therefore, we can better understand the impact of these new emerging contaminants on IBD, minimize their exposures, and lower the future incidence of IBD.
62Micro- and nano-plastics, intestinal inflammation, and inflammatory bowel disease: A review of the literature.PubMed
Manasi Agrawal, Alvise Vianello, Mellissa Picker, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2024 Nov 25;953:176228. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.176228. Epub 2024 Sep 11.
Plastics, encompassing a wide range of polymeric materials, and their downstream products (micro- and nanoplastics, MNPs) are accumulating in the environment at an alarming rate, and they are linked to adverse human health outcomes. Considering that ingestion is a main source of MNPs exposure, the impact of plastics is particularly relevant towards intestinal inflammation and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). However, the study of MNPs has been limited by obstacles relating to sample collection, preparation, and microplastics analysis based on optical microscopy and chemical analysis, which we detail in this review alongside potential solutions. We summarize available data on human exposure to MNPs and overall health outcomes, with particular focus on data pertaining to intestinal inflammation, microbiome perturbations, and related outcomes. We include ecologic perspectives, and human, in vitro, and animal model studies. We discuss the way forward in MNPs and IBD research, including knowledge gaps and future research.
63Effects of microplastics in aquatic environments on inflammatory bowel disease.PubMed
Jiali Ji, Xinyue Wu, Xi Li, et al.
Environ Res. 2023 Jul 15;229:115974. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.115974. Epub 2023 Apr 23.
The incidence of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) has been increasing in recent years, particularly in newly industrialized nations. Environmental factors have been identified as playing a crucial role in IBD pathogenesis. Microplastics (MPs), a novel class of environmental pollutants, are a significant global pollution concern. MPs are found in almost all aquatic environments. MPs in the environment may pose health risks, specifically concerning the intestinal system, due to prolonged exposure through the consumption of aquatic foods and drinking water. In this review, we aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge on the impact of MPs in water resources on the occurrence and progression of IBD. Our systematic analysis of in vitro and in vivo studies found that MPs induce intestinal barrier dysfunction, imbalance in the intestinal microbiome, and metabolic abnormalities, ultimately leading to IBD. In addition, MP exposure causes greater harm to individuals with preexisting gastrointestinal disorders than those without them. Our analysis of this literature review highlights the need for further research to improve the understanding of the complex relationship between MP exposure and IBD.
64Immunotoxicity and intestinal effects of nano- and microplastics: a review of the literature.PubMed
Nell Hirt, Mathilde Body-Malapel
Part Fibre Toxicol. 2020 Nov 12;17(1):57. doi: 10.1186/s12989-020-00387-7.
BACKGROUND: Together with poor biodegradability and insufficient recycling, the massive production and use of plastics have led to widespread environmental contamination by nano- and microplastics. These particles accumulate across ecosystems - even in the most remote habitats - and are transferred through food chains, leading to inevitable human ingestion, that adds to the highest one due to food processes and packaging. OBJECTIVE: The present review aimed at providing a comprehensive overview of current knowledge regarding the effects of nano- and microplastics on intestinal homeostasis. METHODS: We conducted a literature search focused on the in vivo effects of nano- and microplastics on gut epithelium and microbiota, as well as on immune response. RESULTS: Numerous animal studies have shown that exposure to nano- and microplastics leads to impairments in oxidative and inflammatory intestinal balance, and disruption of the gut's epithelial permeability. Other notable effects of nano- and microplastic exposure include dysbiosis (changes in the gut microbiota) and immune cell toxicity. Moreover, microplastics contain additives, adsorb contaminants, and may promote the growth of bacterial pathogens on their surfaces: they are potential carriers of intestinal toxicants and pathogens that can potentially lead to further adverse effects. CONCLUSION: Despite the scarcity of reports directly relevant to human, this review brings together a growing body of evidence showing that nano- and microplastic exposure disturbs the gut microbiota and critical intestinal functions. Such effects may promote the development of chronic immune disorders. Further investigation of this threat to human health is warranted.
65Simulated Microplastic Release from Cutting Boards and Evaluation of Intestinal Inflammation and Gut Microbiota in Mice.PubMed
Hai-Jun Gan, Shan Chen, Ke Yao, et al.
Environ Health Perspect. 2025 Apr;133(3-4):47004. doi: 10.1289/EHP15472. Epub 2025 Apr 9.
BACKGROUND: Plastic cutting boards are commonly used in food preparation, increasing human exposure to microplastics (MPs). However, the health implications are still not well understood. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to assess the impacts of long-term exposure to MPs released from cutting boards on intestinal inflammation and gut microbiota. METHODS: MPs were incorporated into mouse diets by cutting the food on polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), and willow wooden (WB) cutting boards, and the diets were fed to mice over periods of 4 and 12 wk. Serum levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), tumor necrosis factor- (TNF-), interleukin-10 (IL-10), lipopolysaccharide (LPS, an endotoxin), and carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), along with ileum and colon levels of interleukin-1 (IL-), TNF-, malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA), and myosin light chain kinase (MLCK), were measured using mouse enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits. The mRNA expression of mucin 2 and intestinal tight junction proteins in mouse ileum and colon tissues was quantified using real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Fecal microbiota, fecal metabolomics, and liver metabolomics were characterized. RESULTS: PP and PE cutting boards released MPs, with concentrations reaching and in diets, respectively, and displaying mean particle sizes of vs. . Mice fed diets prepared on PP cutting boards for 12 wk exhibited significantly higher serum levels of LPS, CRP, TNF-, IL-10, and CEA, as well as higher levels of IL-1, TNF-, MDA, SOD, and MLCK in the ileum and colon compared with mice fed diets prepared on WB cutting boards. These mice also showed lower relative expression of and in the ileum and colon. In contrast, mice exposed to diets prepared on PE cutting boards for 12 wk did not show evident inflammation; however, there was a significant decrease in the relative abundance of Firmicutes and an increase in Desulfobacterota compared with those fed diets prepared on WB cutting boards, and exposure to diets prepared on PE cutting boards over 12 wk also altered mouse fecal and liver metabolites compared with those fed diets prepared on WB cutting boards. DISCUSSION: The findings suggest that MPs from PP cutting boards impair intestinal barrier function and induce inflammation, whereas those from PE cutting boards affect the gut microbiota, gut metabolism, and liver metabolism in the mouse model. These findings offer crucial insights into the safe use of plastic cutting boards. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP15472.
66Mixtures of polystyrene micro and nanoplastics affects fat and glucose metabolism in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and zebrafish larvae.PubMed
Jung Eun Kim, Narayan Sah Sonar, Laxmi Sen Thakuri, et al.
NanoImpact. 2025 Jan;37:100549. doi: 10.1016/j.impact.2025.100549. Epub 2025 Feb 16.
Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) are pervasive pollutants that pose a hazard to human health. Although most previous studies have investigated the effects of MPs and NPs on digestion, oxidative stress, and inflammation in diverse models, the combined effect of plastic mixtures (PM) containing MPs and NPs on obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) remains unknown. The hypothesis of our study is to verify the association between PM exposure and clinical features of metabolic diseases such as lipogenesis and insulin resistance. Therefore, we investigated the effects of PM on fat and glucose metabolism in 3T3-L1 cells and high-fat diet (HFD)-induced zebrafish larvae. PM exposure increased cell viability, differentiation, adipogenesis (PPARγ and C/EBPα), and lipogenesis (FAS and SREBP-1c), while it decreased glucose uptake and inhibited insulin signal (IRS1, PI3K, AKT, and GLUT4) expression 3T3-L1 cells. In zebrafish larvae, PM mainly bioaccumulated in the intestine and pancreatic tissue, reducing glucose uptake and increasing body weight and blood glucose compared to controls. Moreover, PM significantly increased adipogenic differentiation (PPARγ) and synthesis (FASN and FABP), proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6), and gluconeogenesis (PCK1 and G6Pase). Conversely, energy and fat metabolism (AMPKα and adiponectin), insulin production (INSα), signaling pathway (IRS1, AKT, and GLUT2), and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10 and IL-4) were suppressed. Overall, this study sheds light on the mechanisms responsible for the detrimental effects of PM exposure on fat and glucose metabolism, providing insights into metabolic disorders, like type 2 diabetes, in both in vitro and in vivo models.
67Polystyrene nanoplastics inhibit beige fat function and exacerbate metabolic disorder in high-fat diet-fed mice.PubMed
Lina Zhang, Baocheng Wan, Jiangfei Zheng, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2024 Mar 25;918:170700. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170700. Epub 2024 Feb 6.
Global health concerns about micro- and nanoplastics are increasing. The newly discovered beige adipocytes play a vital role in energy homeostasis through their high thermogenic capacity upon activation. However, the effects of micro- and nanoplastics on beige adipocytes have not yet been studied. We investigated whether the effects of oral exposure to polystyrene nanoparticles (PS-NPs) on systemic metabolic performance can be induced by disrupting beige adipocyte function, and the potential mechanism. In the present study, C57BL/6J male mice were fed a high-fat diet (HFD) with or without PS-NPs exposure for 12 weeks to investigate the differences in metabolic performance. We also isolated stromal vascular fraction from C57BL/6J male mice to differentiate and prepare primary beige adipocyte cultures. Primary beige adipocytes were treated with PS-NPs on the sixth day of differentiation. The results showed that oral intake of PS-NPs exacerbated metabolic disorders of mice under HFD, including suppressed energy expenditure, increased fat mass and liver steatosis, decreased insulin sensitivity, disrupted glucose homeostasis, and decreased cold-tolerance capability compared with the control group. Intriguingly, we observed that, after a 12-week exposure, PS-NPs accumulated in the inguinal white adipose tissue (iWAT), a fat depot rich in beige adipocytes, further suppressing thermogenic gene programs, particularly the level of uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1), a master regulator in the browning process of beige adipocytes. These effects ultimately led to decreased energy expenditure and subsequent disorders of glucolipid metabolism. Mechanistically, we revealed that PS-NPs disrupt mitochondrial function and induce oxidative damage and inflammation in beige adipocytes to inhibit their function. These negative metabolic effects of PS-NPs were ameliorated by antioxidant supplementation. Our study is the first to demonstrate that PS-NPs exposure exacerbates metabolic disorder in HFD-fed mice by disrupting beige adipocyte function.
68Exploring the micro- and nanoplastics-diabetes nexus: Shattered barriers, toxic links, and methodological horizons.PubMed
V C Shruti, Gurusamy Kutralam-Muniasamy, Fermín Pérez-Guevara, et al.
Environ Pollut. 2025 Jun 15;375:126319. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2025.126319. Epub 2025 Apr 26.
Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are emerging environmental contaminants with increasing evidence linking them to metabolic dysfunction, including diabetes-related outcomes. While experimental studies have demonstrated that MNPs disrupt glucose metabolism, insulin signaling, and lipid homeostasis through oxidative stress, systemic inflammation, and endocrine disruption, the implications for human health remain largely unexplored. Given the widespread presence of MNPs in food, water, and air, chronic low-dose exposure may contribute to metabolic disorders, yet epidemiological data are scarce. This review synthesizes current findings on MNP-induced metabolic disturbances, highlighting their impact on insulin resistance, hepatic fat accumulation, gut microbiota dysbiosis, and adipose tissue dysfunction. Additionally, we evaluate the analytical methodologies used to detect MNPs in biological systems and assess the relevance of exposure levels in real-world scenarios. By contextualizing these mechanisms within a broader public health framework, this review underscores the urgent need for large-scale human studies to establish causal links between MNP exposure and metabolic diseases. Addressing these knowledge gaps is critical for informing risk assessment, regulatory policies, and future research directions aimed at mitigating the metabolic risks associated with environmental plastic pollution.
69Associations between microplastics in human feces and colorectal cancer risk.PubMed
Jingyan Xu, Jianli Qu, Hangbiao Jin, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2025 Sep 5;495:139099. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.139099. Epub 2025 Jun 28.
Microplastics (MPs) are widely detected in water, air, and food, raising increasing concerns about human exposure. Although growing toxicological evidence suggests that MPs can disrupt gastrointestinal function, their association with colorectal cancer (CRC) risk in humans remains underexplored. This case-control study examined the relationship between fecal MP concentrations and CRC risk in a Chinese population. A total of 258 CRC patients and 493 healthy controls were recruited from the Environmental Exposure and Human Health cohort at Quzhou People's Hospital. Fecal MP concentrations were quantified using Laser Infrared Imaging Spectrometer. The median MP concentration was significantly higher in CRC cases than in controls (62 vs. 43 items/g dry weight, p < 0.05). Multivariable logistic regression showed that individuals in the highest exposure quartile had an adjusted odds ratio of 11.3 (95 % CI: 6.77-19.5, p for trend < 0.01) compared to those in the lowest quartile. Restricted cubic spline analysis indicated a nonlinear dose-response relationship. Stratified analyses indicated that this association was particularly pronounced among females and individuals who frequently consumed spicy or high-fat foods. These findings provide first epidemiological evidence of a potential link between elevated MP exposure and CRC risk.
70Reproductive and developmental implications of micro- and nanoplastic internalization: Recent advances and perspectives.PubMed
Zitong Zhang, Jiahua Meng, Jiaqi Tian, et al.
Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2024 Nov 1;286:117245. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.117245. Epub 2024 Oct 25.
A growing body of evidence exhibits the ubiquitous presence and accumulation of micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) in the air, drinking water, food, and even inside the body, which has raised concerns about their potential impact on reproductive and developmental health. To comprehensively examine the current state of knowledge regarding MNPs-induced reproductive and developmental toxicity, we conducted this systematic review by focusing on the prevalence of MNPs determined in reproductive tissues and their influences on parental reproduction and offspring development. Our findings demonstrate the detection of MNPs in various human reproductive tissues, including semen, placenta, and ovarian follicular fluid, as well as in reproductive tissues of diverse animal species. We show a potential relationship between MNP exposure and increased prevalence of infertility and adverse pregnancy outcomes based on the fact that MNPs exert detrimental effects on reproductive parameters, including sperm quality, ovarian function, and steroidogenesis. In male reproductive systems, MNPs disrupt testicular tissue structure, impair reproductive endocrinology, and reduce sperm quality. In females, MNPs affect ovarian tissue structure and function, interfere with hormone secretion, and impact the endometrium and embryo implantation. Additionally, MNPs cause developmental toxicity in animal models, affecting embryonic development and offspring health, and produce transgenerational effects. Notably, in-depth literature study suggests a crucial role for oxidative stress, inflammation, and epigenetic modification in MNPs-induced toxicity. In conclusion, we integrated systematic knowledge on MNPs-induced reproductive and developmental toxicity, and the systematic finding underscores future study to fully elucidate the risks posed by MNPs to reproductive and developmental health and to inform policy decisions and public health interventions aimed at mitigating their harmful effects.
71Microplastics: unraveling the signaling pathways involved in reproductive health.PubMed
Muhammad Tanveer, Nimra Mansha, Afzal Nimra, et al.
Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2023 Sep;30(42):95077-95085. doi: 10.1007/s11356-023-29273-3. Epub 2023 Aug 16.
Microplastics (MPs) are biologically active environmental pollutants having significant impact on the ecosystem and human health. MPs have been reported to increase oxidative stress, resulting in tissue damage, developmental abnormalities, metabolic disorders, epigenetic changes, abnormal reproduction, and reduced gamete quality. At present, most of the existing literature has focused on the effects of MPs on the reproduction of various aquatic organisms; however, the effects of MPs on mammalian reproduction specifically humans are least studied except a few ones fragmentally discussing the effects of MPs on gametogenesis in human. This review discusses effects of MPs on male and female reproduction with a focus on different metabolic pathways involved in compromised gamete quality, gamete toxicity, apoptosis, and DNA damage.
72Polystyrene microplastics cause tissue damages, sex-specific reproductive disruption and transgenerational effects in marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma).PubMed
Jun Wang, Yuejiao Li, Lin Lu, et al.
Environ Pollut. 2019 Nov;254(Pt B):113024. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113024. Epub 2019 Aug 7.
The ubiquity of microplastics in the world's ocean has aroused great concern. However, the ecological effects of microplastics at environmentally realistic concentrations are unclear. Here we showed that exposure of marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma) to environmentally relevant concentrations of 10 μm polystyrene microplastics for 60 days not only led to microplastic accumulation in the gill, intestine, and liver, but also caused oxidative stress and histological changes. Moreover, 2, 20, and 200 μg/L microplastics delayed gonad maturation and decreased the fecundity of female fish. Alterations of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis were investigated to reveal the underlying mechanisms, and gene transcription analysis showed that microplastic exposure had significantly negative regulatory effects in female HPG axis. Transcription of genes involved in the steroidogenesis pathway in females were also downregulated. This disruption resulted in decreased concentrations of 17β-estradiol (E) and testosterone (T) in female plasma. Furthermore, parental exposure to 20 μg/L microplastics postponed the incubation time and decreased the hatching rate, heart rate, and body length of the offspring. Overall, the present study demonstrated for the first time that environmentally relevant concentrations of microplastics had adverse effects on the reproduction of marine medaka and might pose a potential threat to marine fish populations.
73Polystyrene microplastics lead to pyroptosis and apoptosis of ovarian granulosa cells via NLRP3/Caspase-1 signaling pathway in rats.PubMed
Junyu Hou, Zhimin Lei, Linlu Cui, et al.
Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2021 Apr 1;212:112012. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112012. Epub 2021 Feb 4.
Microplastics (MPs) considered as a new persistent environmental pollutant could enter into the circulatory system and result in decrease of sperm quantity and quality in mice. However, the effects of Polystyrene MPs (PS MPs) on the ovary and its mechanism in rats remained unclear. In this present study, thirty-two healthy female Wistar rats were exposed to different concentrations of 0.5 µm PS MPs dispersed in deionized water for 90 days. Using hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining, the number of growing follicles was decreased compared to the control group. In addition, the activity of glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were decreased while the expression level of malondialdehyde (MDA) was increased in ovary tissue. Confirmed by immunohistochemistry, the integrated optical density of NLRP3 and Cleaved-Caspase-1 had been elevated by 13.9 and 14 in granulosa cells in the 1.5 mg/kg/d group. Furthermore, compared to the control group, the level of AMH had been decreased by 23.3 pg/ml while IL-1β and IL-18 had been increased by 32 and 18.5 pg/ml in the 1.5 mg/kg/d group using the enzyme-linked immune sorbent assay (ELISA). Besides, the apoptosis of granulosa cells was elevated measured by terminal deoxyribonucleotide transferase-mediated nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining and flow cytometry. Moreover, western blot assays showed that the expressions of NLRP3/Caspase-1 signaling pathway related factors and Cleaved-Caspase-3 were increased. These results demonstrated that PS MPs could induce pyroptosis and apoptosis of ovarian granulosa cells via the NLRP3/Caspase-1 signaling pathway maybe triggered by oxidative stress. The present study suggested that exposure to microplastics had adverse effects on ovary and could be a potential risk factor for female infertility, which provided new insights into the toxicity of MPs on female reproduction.
74Polystyrene microplastics cause granulosa cells apoptosis and fibrosis in ovary through oxidative stress in rats.PubMed
Ru An, Xifeng Wang, Long Yang, et al.
Toxicology. 2021 Feb 15;449:152665. doi: 10.1016/j.tox.2020.152665. Epub 2020 Dec 24.
Microplastics (MPs) are receiving increased attention as a harmful environmental pollutant. Studies have investigated that MPs have reproductive toxicity, but the mechanism is little known. Here, we aimed to investigate the effects of polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) on ovary in rats and the underlying molecular mechanisms. in vivo, thirty-two female Wistar rats were exposed to 0.5 μm PS-MPs at different concentrations (0, 0.015, 0.15 and 1.5 mg/d) for 90 days. And then, all animals were sacrificed, ovaries and blood were collected for testing. in vitro, granulosa cells (GCs) were separated from rat ovary and treated with 0、1、5、25 μg/mL PS-MPs and reactive oxygen species (ROS) inhibitor N-Acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC) respectively. Our results showed that PS-MPs could enter into GCs and result in the reducing of growing follicles number. And the Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) manifested that PS-MPs could obviously decrease the level of anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH). In addition, PS-MPs induced oxidative stress, apoptosis of GCs and ovary fibrosis evidenced by assay kits, flow cytometry, immunohistochemistry, Masson's trichrome and Sirius red staining. Moreover, the western blot assay manifested that PS-MPs exposure significantly increased the expression levels of Wnt/β-Catenin signaling pathways-related proteins (Wnt, β-catenin, p-β-catenin) and the main fibrosis markers (transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), fibronectin, α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA). Additionally, the expression levels of Wnt and p-β-catenin, apoptosis of GCs decreased after NAC treatment. In summary, polystyrene microplastics cause fibrosis via Wnt/β-Catenin signaling pathway activation and granulosa cells apoptosis of ovary through oxidative stress in rats, both of which ultimately resulted in decrease of ovarian reserve capacity.
75Reproductive toxicity of microplastics in female mice and their offspring from induction of oxidative stress.PubMed
Yingbing Zhang, Xiyue Wang, Yifan Zhao, et al.
Environ Pollut. 2023 Jun 15;327:121482. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121482. Epub 2023 Mar 24.
Microplastics (MPs) are an emerging pollutant that is becoming recognized as an increasingly serious environmental problem. The biological toxicity and resulting health risks of MPs have attracted much attention in the research community. While the effects of MPs on various mammalian organ systems have been described, their interactions with oocytes and the underlying mechanism of their activity within the reproductive system have remained ambiguous. Here, we discovered that oral administration of MPs to mice (40 mg/kg per day for 30 days) significantly reduced the oocyte maturation and fertilization rate, embryo development, and fertility. Ingestion of MPs significantly increased the ROS level in oocytes and embryos, leading to oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and apoptosis. Moreover, mouse exposure to MPs caused DNA damage in oocytes, including spindle/chromosome morphology defects, and downregulation of actin and Juno expression in mouse oocytes. In addition, mice were also exposed to MPs (40 mg/kg per day) during gestation and lactation to determine trans-generational reproductive toxicity. The results showed that maternal exposure to MPs during pregnancy resulted in a decline in birth and postnatal body weight in offspring mice. Furthermore, MPs exposure of mothers markedly reduced oocyte maturation, fertilization rate, and embryonic development in their female offspring. This investigation provides new insights on the mechanism of MPs' reproductive toxicity and raises concerns for potential risks of MP pollution on the reproductive health of humans and animals.
76Lactating exposure to microplastics at the dose of infants ingested during artificial feeding induced reproductive toxicity in female mice and their offspring.PubMed
Yunde Dou, Mengge Zhang, Honghui Zhang, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2024 Nov 1;949:174972. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174972. Epub 2024 Jul 23.
Microplastics (MPs) pollution poses a global environmental challenge with significant concerns regarding its potential impact on human health. Toxicological investigations have revealed multi-system impairments caused by MPs in various organisms. However, the specific reproductive hazards in human contexts remain elusive, and understanding the transgenerational reproductive toxicity of MPs remains limited. This study delves into the reproductive toxicity resulting from lactational exposure to polystyrene MPs (PS-MPs) in female mice, extending the inquiry to assess the reproductive effects on their offspring bred by rigorous natural mating. The MPs dosage corresponds to the detected concentration in infant formula prepared using plastic bottles. By systematically evaluating the reproductive phenotypes of F0 female mice from birth to adulthood, we found that female mice exposed to PS-MPs exhibited delayed puberty, disturbed estrous cyclicity, diminished fertility, elevated testosterone, abnormal follicle development, disrupted ovarian steroidogenesis, and ovarian inflammation. Importantly, the observed inheritable reproductive toxicity manifested with gender specificity, showcasing more pronounced abnormalities in male offspring. Specifically, reproductive disorders did not manifest in female offspring; however, a significant decrease in sperm count and viability was observed in PS-MPs-exposed F1 males. Testicular transcriptomics analysis of F1 males significantly enriched pathways associated with reproductive system development and epigenetic modification, such as male germ cell proliferation, DNA methylation, and histone modification. In summary, real-life exposure to PS-MPs impaired the reproductive function of female mice and threateningly disrupted the spermatogenesis of their F1 male offspring, which raises serious concerns about inter- and trans-generational reproductive toxicities of MPs in mammals. These findings underscore the potential threats of MPs to human reproductive health, emphasizing the need for continued vigilance and research in this critical area.
77Polystyrene microplastics increase estrogenic effects of 17α-ethynylestradiol on male marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma).PubMed
Jun Wang, Xuan Li, Ming Gao, et al.
Chemosphere. 2022 Jan;287(Pt 3):132312. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132312. Epub 2021 Sep 20.
Microplastics (MPs) and endocrine disrupting chemicals are ubiquitous pollutants in marine environments, but their combined ecological risk is unclear. This study exposed male marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma) to 10 ng/L 17α-ethynylestradiol (EE) alone or EE plus 2, 20, and 200 μg/L polystyrene MPs for 28 days to investigate the impacts of MPs on the reproductive disruption of EE. The results showed that 10 ng/L EE alone did not affect biometric parameters, while co-exposure to EE and 20, 200 μg/L MPs suppressed the growth and decreased gonadosomatic and hepatosomatic indices. Compared to EE alone, EE plus MPs exposure significantly increased plasma 17β-estradiol (E) levels in a dose-dependent manner, and co-exposure to EE and 20, 200 μg/L MPs significantly increased the ratios of E/testosterone (T). Moreover, EE plus MPs exposure elevated the transcription levels of estrogen biomarker genes vitellogenin and choriogenin, and estrogen receptor (ERα and ERβ). Morphological analysis also showed that co-exposure to EE and MPs induced more severe damage to the testes and livers, indicating that MPs increased the toxicity of EE. The actual EE concentrations in the solution increased with the exposure concentrations of MPs, suggesting that MPs changed the fate and behavior of EE in the seawater. These findings demonstrate that MPs could increase the estrogenic effects of EE on marine fish, suggesting that the combined health risk of MPs and endocrine disrupting chemicals on marine organisms should be paid great attention.
78Prenatal microplastic exposure and umbilical cord blood androgenic and glucocorticoid hormones.PubMed
Bingying Liu, Dongming Zheng, Jia Wang, et al.
Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2025 Sep 15;303:118827. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2025.118827. Epub 2025 Aug 19.
Placental microplastic exposure has emerged as a potential environmental risk factor affecting fetal development. This study investigates the association between placental microplastic burden and umbilical cord hormone levels in a cohort of pregnant women from Shenyang, China. A total of 1324 pregnant women during 2022-2023 were enrolled. Placental microplastics were quantified using a laser direct infrared (LD-IR) chemical imaging system, targeting polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polypropylene (PP), and polybutylene succinate (PBS). Umbilical cord blood cortisol, cortisone, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), and androstenedione were analyzed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Regression models were applied to assess individual microplastic associations, while quantile-based g-computation (g-comp) and Bayesian Kernel Machine Regression (BKMR) were used to evaluate mixture effects. Microplastics were detected in all placental samples, with a median total concentration of 12 particles/10 g. Placental microplastic exposure was significantly associated with altered fetal hormone levels. Higher PVC, PBS, and total microplastic concentrations were linked to lower cortisol levels, while PVC, PP, and total microplastics were associated with reduced cortisone. In contrast, PBS and total microplastics were positively associated with DHEA, and PVC, PBS, and total microplastics correlated with increased androstenedione. The cortisol/DHEA and glucocorticoid/androgenic ratios were significantly reduced with higher microplastic exposure, suggesting endocrine disruption. Mixture analysis confirmed these trends, showing decreased glucocorticoids and increased androgens, with sex-stratified analysis indicating stronger cortisol reductions in boys and higher DHEA in girls. Overall, placental microplastic exposure was associated with altered fetal hormone levels, suggesting potential endocrine disruption while further studies are needed.
79Microplastics: A threat to Fetoplacental unit and Reproductive systems.PubMed
Abass Toba Anifowoshe, Md Noor Akhtar, Abisola Majeed, et al.
Toxicol Rep. 2025 Jan 30;14:101938. doi: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.101938. eCollection 2025 Jun.
Plastic pollution has become a pressing global environmental and public health challenge, raising significant concerns about its potential effects on human health. While extensive research has been conducted on micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs), there remains a critical gap in understanding how these plastic particles traverse the maternal-fetal interface and contribute to reproductive anomalies. This review aims to address this knowledge gap by examining the effects of MNPs on the fetoplacental unit, a vital structure that serves as the interface between the mother and fetus during pregnancy, as well as on the broader reproductive system. Traditionally viewed as a protective barrier safeguarding the fetus, emerging evidence suggests that the placenta may also act as a site for the accumulation of plastic particles, thereby compromising its function. A literature search was conducted using a combination of keywords on Google Scholar and PubMed including 'plastic particles affect the fetoplacental unit', 'how plastic particles traverse the maternal-fetal contact', and reproductive abnormalities induced by micro/nano-plastics'. Key studies show that plastic particles can traverse the maternal-fetal interface, potentially exposing developing fetuses to various harmful chemicals present in plastics, such as endocrine disruptors and persistent organic pollutants. Once in contact with the fetoplacental unit, these particles may trigger inflammatory responses, oxidative stress, and even epigenetic modifications. They also bioaccumulate in testes, altering spermatogenesis, spermatozoa morphology, testosterone production, body weights, and inflammation as reported in mice. Such disruptions can increase the risk of developmental and reproductive disorders in the fetus, suggesting that exposure to plastic particles may carry long-term health implications. Further studies highlight the particular vulnerability of the fetoplacental unit to plastic particles. The placenta has limited detoxifying capabilities and unique immunological regulation, making it especially sensitive to foreign particles. Identifying critical windows of susceptibility during pregnancy is germane, as exposure to plastic particles during these periods could have heightened effects on fetal development. This growing concern underscores the urgent need for comprehensive research into the mechanisms through which plastic particles impact the fetoplacental unit. Additionally, this review calls for stronger measures to mitigate plastic pollution and recommends health strategies aimed at protecting future generations from potential harm. It synthesizes recent findings on the ways in which these particles influence the fetoplacental unit and the broader reproductive system.
80Polystyrene Nanoplastics Activate Autophagy and Suppress Trophoblast Cell Migration/Invasion and Migrasome Formation to Induce Miscarriage.PubMed
Shukun Wan, Xiaoqing Wang, Weina Chen, et al.
ACS Nano. 2024 Jan 30;18(4):3733-3751. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.3c11734. Epub 2024 Jan 22.
Nanoplastics (NPs), as emerging pollutants, have attracted global attention. Nevertheless, the adverse effects of NPs on female reproductive health, especially unexplained miscarriage, are poorly understood. Defects of trophoblast cell migration and invasion are associated with miscarriage. Migrasomes were identified as cellular organelles with largely unidentified functions. Whether NPs might affect migration, invasion, and migrasome formation and induce miscarriage has been completely unexplored. In this study, we selected polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs, 50 nm) as a model of plastic particles and treated human trophoblast cells and pregnant mice with PS-NPs at doses near the actual environmental exposure doses of plastic particles in humans. We found that exposure to PS-NPs induced a pregnant mouse miscarriage. PS-NPs suppressed ROCK1-mediated migration/invasion and migrasome formation. SOX2 was identified as the transcription factor of ROCK1. PS-NPs activated autophagy and promoted the autophagy degradation of SOX2, thus suppressing SOX2-mediated ROCK1 transcription. Supplementing with murine SOX2 or ROCK1 could efficiently rescue migration/invasion and migrasome formation and alleviate miscarriage. Analysis of the protein levels of SOX2, ROCK1, TSPAN4, NDST1, P62, and LC-3BII/I in PS-NP-exposed trophoblast cells, villous tissues of unexplained miscarriage patients, and placental tissues of PS-NP-exposed mice gave consistent results. Collectively, this study revealed the reproductive toxicity of nanoplastics and their potential regulatory mechanism, indicating that NP exposure is a risk factor for female reproductive health.
81Current Insights into the Impact of Plastic-derived Pollutants (Phthalates), Microplastics, and Nanoplastics on Hypothalamic Phenotype and Molecular Pathways: A Scoping Review.PubMed
Matheus Naia Fioretto, Victória Cristina Pinha, Carolina Beatriz Pinheiro Basso, et al.
Environ Pollut. 2025 Nov 19:127413. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2025.127413.
Plastic is a ubiquitous material worldwide, and its derivatives - such as phthalates as Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) derived from plastics and Microplastics (MPs) and Nanoplastics (NPs) as plastics waste - have raised increasing concern due to their potential adverse effects on human health, particularly on the neuroendocrine system and hypothalamic regulatory pathways. This critical scoping review integrates experimental and theoretical evidence on the metabolic impacts of chemical additives (phthalates) and micro and nanometric plastic waste (MNPs), emphasizing hypothalamic alterations and their systemic consequences. The eligibility criteria were to select articles that specifically traced the correlation between exposure to phthalates or MPs/NPs on the hypothalamic structure or molecular aspects, from studies present in PubMed using the mapping method by Nanoplastics and hypothalamus, Microplastics and hypothalamus, and Phthalates and hypothalamus. Plastic-derived EDCs have been shown to impair energy homeostasis, eating behavior, reproduction, and neurodevelopment. Both gestational and chronic exposures promote hypothalamic inflammation and disrupt key metabolic pathways by altering the sensitivity of hormone receptors, axis pathways, reproductive parameters, and biological development. Evidence also highlights sex-specific differences in hypothalamic responses and the role of EDCs in inducing epigenetic changes with potential transgenerational transmission. Despite these advances, significant gaps remain, particularly regarding studies directly targeting the hypothalamus and its nuclei. Elucidating the neurotoxic mechanisms of plastics and their derivatives is essential to guide public health strategies and regulatory policies aimed at mitigating exposure risks.
82The effects of micro- and nanoplastics on the central nervous system: A new threat to humanity?PubMed
Yanxu Zheng, Shengchao Xu, Jingyu Liu, et al.
Toxicology. 2024 May;504:153799. doi: 10.1016/j.tox.2024.153799. Epub 2024 Apr 11.
Given the widespread production and use of plastics, poor biodegradability, and inadequate recycling, micro/nanoplastics (MNPs) have caused widespread environmental pollution. As a result, humans inevitably ingest MNPs through various pathways. However, there is still no consensus on whether exposure to MNPs has adverse effects on humans. This article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the knowledge of MNPs and the potential mechanisms of their impact on the central nervous system. Numerous in vivo and in vitro studies have shown that exposure to MNPs may pass through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and lead to neurotoxicity through impairments in oxidative and inflammatory balance, neurotransmitter alternation, nerve conduction-related key enzymes, and impact through the gut-brain axis. It is worth noting that MNPs may act as carriers and have more severe effects on the body when co-exposed with other substances. MNPs of smaller sizes cause more severe harm. Despite the scarcity of reports directly relevant to humans, this review brings together a growing body of evidence showing that exposure to MNPs disturbs neurons and has even been found to alter the memory and behavior of organisms. This effect may lead to further potential negative influence on the central nervous system and contribute to the development of other diseases such as central nervous system inflammation and Parkinson 's-like neurodegenerative disorders. There is a need further to investigate the threat of MNPs to human health.
83Exposure to polystyrene microplastics impairs hippocampus-dependent learning and memory in mice.PubMed
Chiang-Wen Lee, Lee-Fen Hsu, I-Lin Wu, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2022 May 15;430:128431. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.128431. Epub 2022 Feb 4.
Microplastics (MPs) pollution has become a serious environmental issue worldwide, but its potential effects on health remain unknown. The administration of polystyrene MPs (PS-MPs) to mice for eight weeks impaired learning and memory behavior. PS-MPs were detected in the brain especially in the hippocampus of these mice. Concurrently, the hippocampus had decreased levels of immediate-early genes, aberrantly enhanced synaptic glutamate AMPA receptors, and elevated neuroinflammation, all of which are critical for synaptic plasticity and memory. Interestingly, ablation of the vagus nerve, a modulator of the gut-brain axis, improved the memory function of PS-MPs mice. These results indicate that exposure to PS-MPs in mice alters the expression of neuronal activity-dependent genes and synaptic proteins, and increases neuroinflammation in the hippocampus, subsequently causing behavioral changes through the vagus nerve-dependent pathway. Our findings shed light on the adverse impacts of PS-MPs on the brain and hippocampal learning and memory.
84Neurotoxic effects of polystyrene nanoplastics on memory and microglial activation: Insights from in vivo and in vitro studies.PubMed
Yunn Me Me Paing, Yunkyung Eom, Gyeong Bae Song, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2024 May 10;924:171681. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171681. Epub 2024 Mar 13.
Nanoplastics, arising from the fragmentation of plastics into environmental pollutants and specialized commercial applications, such as cosmetics, have elicited concerns due to their potential toxicity. Evidence suggests that the oral ingestion of nanoplastics smaller than 100 nm may penetrate the brain and induce neurotoxicity. However, comprehensive research in this area has been hampered by technical challenges associated with the detection and synthesis of nanoplastics. This study aimed to bridge this research gap by successfully synthesizing fluorescent polystyrene nanoplastics (PSNPs, 30-50 nm) through the incorporation of IR-813 and validating them using various analytical techniques. We administered PSNPs orally (10 and 20 mg/kg/day) to mice and observed that they reached brain tissues and induced cognitive dysfunction, as measured by spatial and fear memory tests, while locomotor and social behaviors remained unaffected. In vitro studies (200 μg/mL) demonstrated a predominant uptake of PSNPs by microglia over astrocytes or neurons, leading to microglial activation, as evidenced by immunostaining of cellular markers and morphological analysis. Transcriptomic analysis indicated that PSNPs altered gene expression in microglia, highlighting neuroinflammatory responses that may contribute to cognitive deficits. To further explore the neurotoxic effects of PSNPs mediated by microglial activation, we measured endogenous neuronal activity using a multi-electrode array in cultured hippocampal neurons. The application of conditioned media from microglia exposed to PSNPs suppressed neuronal activity, which was reversed by inhibitors of microglial activation. Our findings offer detailed insights into the mechanisms by which nanoplastics damage the brain, particularly emphasizing the potential environmental risk factors that contribute to cognitive impairment in neurodegenerative diseases.
85Microglial phagocytosis of polystyrene microplastics results in immune alteration and apoptosis in vitro and in vivo.PubMed
Wookbong Kwon, Daehwan Kim, Hee-Yeon Kim, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2022 Feb 10;807(Pt 2):150817. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150817. Epub 2021 Oct 7.
The remarkable increase in plastic usage and widespread microplastic (MP) pollution has emerged as a substantial concern today. Many recent studies have revealed MPs as potentially hazardous substances in mammals. Despite several reports on the impact of small MPs in the brain and behaviors in aquatic animals, it is still unclear how small MPs affect the brain and its underlying cellular physiology in terrestrial animals. In this study, we investigated the accumulation of polystyrene MPs (PS-MPs) in mouse brain after oral treatment using three types of fluorescent PS-MPs of different sizes (0.2,2 and 10 μm). We found that PS-MPs were deposited in microglial cells of the brain. Following differential treatment of PS-MPs in human microglial HMC-3 cells, we identified changes in cellular morphology, immune responses, and microglial apoptosis induced by phagocytosis of 0.2 and 2 μm PS-MPs. By analyzing the PS-MP-treated HMC-3 cell transcriptome, we showed that PS-MPs treatment altered the expression of clusters of immune response genes, immunoglobulins, and several related microRNAs. In addition, we confirmed alterations in microglial differentiation marker expression with the activation of NF-κB, pro-inflammatory cytokines and apoptotic markers in PS-MP-treated human microglial cells and in mouse brain. Our findings suggest a potential risk of small PS-MPs in microglial immune activation, which leads to microglial apoptosis in murine and human brains.
86Exposure to Polystyrene Microplastics Promotes the Progression of Cognitive Impairment in Alzheimer's Disease: Association with Induction of Microglial Pyroptosis.PubMed
Genghuan Wang, Yingcong Lin, Heping Shen
Mol Neurobiol. 2024 Feb;61(2):900-907. doi: 10.1007/s12035-023-03625-z. Epub 2023 Sep 5.
We focused on investigating the effects and mechanisms of polystyrene (PS) microplastics in Alzheimer's disease (AD). PS could promote the cognitive impairment in mice and antagonize the action of PS. Meanwhile, it could promote microglial pyroptosis and aggravate neuroinflammation. In vitro results also showed that PS induced pyroptosis of BV2 and RAW264.7, after GSDMD silencing, such pyroptosis was inhibited. Our study found that PS aggravated neuroinflammation by inducing microglial pyroptosis, thereby promoting the progression of cognitive impairment in AD. This finding offers new support and reference for the induction of AD progression by environmental factors.
87Microplastics and human health: unveiling the gut microbiome disruption and chronic disease risks.PubMed
Sudipta Sankar Bora, Rahul Gogoi, Madhurjya Ranjan Sharma, et al.
Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2024 Nov 25;14:1492759. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1492759. eCollection 2024.
Microplastics (MPs), defined as plastic particles smaller than 5 mm, are increasingly recognized as environmental contaminants with potential health risks. These emerge as breakdown products of larger plastics and are omnipresent in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial ecosystems. They are primarily composed of polymers such as polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and additives that enhance their performance. MPs also adsorb harmful environmental chemicals like persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals, posing risks to human and environmental health. Human exposure to MPs occurs mainly through ingestion and inhalation, with MPs detected in food products, water, and even the air. MPs have been shown to accumulate in the gastrointestinal tract, disrupting the gut microbiome, and causing dysbiosis-a harmful imbalance between beneficial and harmful bacteria. This disruption has been linked to various health issues, including gastrointestinal disorders, systemic inflammation, and chronic diseases. Furthermore, the gut-brain axis may be affected, with potential neuroinflammatory consequences. As research continues to unravel the health impacts of MP exposure, understanding the mechanisms of accumulation and the broader implications on human health is crucial. This review highlights the effects of MPs on human health, emphasizing their impact on the gut microbiome. We discuss the potential connections between MP exposure and cardiometabolic and inflammatory diseases, and disorders related to the Gut-Brain Axis. By synthesizing the latest research, this work sheds light on the silent yet pervasive threat posed by MPs and underscores the importance of further studies to understand their health impacts fully.
88Oxidized/unmodified-polyethylene microplastics neurotoxicity in mice: Perspective from microbiota-gut-brain axis.PubMed
Ji Wang, Ying Yang, Yongpeng Shi, et al.
Environ Int. 2024 Mar;185:108523. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2024.108523. Epub 2024 Mar 7.
Microplastics (MPs) are inevitably oxidized in the environment, and their potential toxicity to organisms has attracted wide attention. However, the neurotoxicity and mechanism of oxidized polyethylene (Ox-PE) MPs to organisms remain unclear. Herein, we prepared oxidized low-density polyethylene (Ox-LDPE) and established a model of MPs exposure by continuously orally gavage of C57BL/6 J mice with LDPE-MPs/Ox-LDPE-MPs for 28 days with or without oral administration of Lactobacillus plantarum DP189 and galactooligosaccharides (DP189&GOS). The experimental results indicated that LDPE-MPs or Ox-LDPE-MPs caused several adverse effects in mice, mainly manifested by behavioral changes, disruption of the intestinal and blood-brain barrier (BBB), and simultaneous oxidative stress, inflammatory reactions, and pathological damage in the brain and intestines. Brain transcriptomic analysis revealed that the cholinergic synaptic signaling pathways, which affect cognitive function, were significantly disrupted after exposure to LDPE-MPs or Ox-LDPE-MPs. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction and Western Blotting results further demonstrated that the critical genes (Slc5a7, Chat and Slc18a3) and proteins (Chat and Slc18a3) in the cholinergic synaptic signaling pathway were significantly down-regulated after exposure to LDPE-MPs or Ox-LDPE-MPs. These alterations lead to reduced acetylcholine concentration, which causes cognitive dysfunction in mice. Importantly, the DP189&GOS interventions effectively mitigated the MPs-induced cognitive dysfunction and intestinal microbiota alteration, improved intestinal and BBB integrity, attenuated the oxidative stress and inflammatory response, and also saw a rebound in the release of acetylcholine. These results indicated that LDPE-MPs and Ox-LDPE-MPs exert neurotoxic effects on mice by inducing oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, and dysregulation of cholinergic signaling pathways in the mouse brain. That probiotic supplementation is effective in attenuating MPs-induced neurotoxicity in mice. Overall, this study reveals the potential mechanisms of neurotoxicity of LDPE-MPs and Ox-LDPE-MPs on mice and their improvement measures, necessary to assess the potential risks of plastic contaminants to human health.
89Probiotics an emerging therapeutic approach towards gut-brain-axis oriented chronic health issues induced by microplastics: A comprehensive review.PubMed
Ieshita Pan, Suganiya Umapathy
Heliyon. 2024 May 28;10(11):e32004. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e32004. eCollection 2024 Jun 15.
Applications for plastic polymers can be found all around the world, often discarded without any prior care, exacerbating the environmental issue. When large waste materials are released into the environment, they undergo physical, biological, and photo-degradation processes that break them down into smaller polymer fragments known as microplastics (MPs). The time it takes for residual plastic to degrade depends on the type of polymer and environmental factors, with some taking as long as 600 years or more. Due to their small size, microplastics can contaminate food and enter the human body through food chains and webs, causing gastrointestinal (GI) tract pain that can range from local to systemic. Microplastics can also acquire hydrophobic organic pollutants and heavy metals on their surface, due to their large surface area and surface hydrophobicity. The levels of contamination on the microplastic surface are significantly higher than in the natural environment. The gut-brain axis (GB axis), through which organisms interact with their environment, regulate nutritional digestion and absorption, intestinal motility and secretion, complex polysaccharide breakdown, and maintain intestinal integrity, can be altered by microplastics acting alone or in combination with pollutants. Probiotics have shown significant therapeutic potential in managing various illnesses mediated by the gut-brain axis. They connect hormonal and biochemical pathways to promote gut and brain health, making them a promising therapy option for a variety of GB axis-mediated illnesses. Additionally, taking probiotics with or without food can reduce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, reactive oxygen species (ROS), neuro-inflammation, neurodegeneration, protein folding, and both motor and non-motor symptoms in individuals with Parkinson's disease. This study provides new insight into microplastic-induced gut dysbiosis, its associated health risks, and the benefits of using both traditional and next-generation probiotics to maintain gut homeostasis.
90Fragile Guts Make Fragile Brains: Intestinal Epithelial Deficiency Exacerbates Neurotoxicity Induced by Polystyrene Nanoplastics.PubMed
Boxuan Liang, Yanhong Deng, Yuji Huang, et al.
ACS Nano. 2024 Sep 3;18(35):24044-24059. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.4c03874. Epub 2024 Aug 19.
Oral ingestion is the primary route for human exposure to nanoplastics, making the gastrointestinal tract one of the first and most impacted organs. Given the presence of the gut-brain axis, a crucial concern arises regarding the potential impact of intestinal damage on the neurotoxic effects of nanoplastics (NPs). The intricate mechanisms underlying NP-induced neurotoxicity through the microbiome-gut-brain axis necessitate further investigation. To address this, we used mice specifically engineered with nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2-related factor 2 () deficiency in their intestines, a strain whose intestines are particularly susceptible to polystyrene NPs (PS-NPs). We conducted a 28-day repeated-dose oral toxicity study with 2.5 and 250 mg/kg of 50 nm PS-NPs in these mice. Our study delineated how PS-NP exposure caused gut microbiota dysbiosis, characterized by and proliferation, resulting in increased levels of interleukin 17C (IL-17C) production in the intestines. The surplus IL-17C permeated the brain via the bloodstream, triggering inflammation and brain damage. Our investigation elucidated a direct correlation between intestinal health and neurological outcomes in the context of PS-NP exposure. Susceptible mice with fragile guts exhibited heightened neurotoxicity induced by PS-NPs. This phenomenon was attributed to the elevated abundance of microbiota associated with IL-17C production in the intestines of these mice, such as and , provoked by PS-NPs. Neurotoxicity was alleviated by treatment with anti-IL-17C-neutralizing antibodies or antibiotics. These findings advanced our comprehension of the regulatory mechanisms governing the gut-brain axis in PS-NP-induced neurotoxicity and underscored the critical importance of maintaining intestinal health to mitigate the neurotoxic effects of PS-NPs.
91Dysregulation of the microbiota-brain axis during long-term exposure to polystyrene nanoplastics in rats and the protective role of dihydrocaffeic acid.PubMed
Wenbo Jiang, Cong Hu, Yunyan Chen, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2023 May 20;874:162101. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162101. Epub 2023 Feb 8.
Polystyrene nano-plastics (PS-NPs) can be accumulated in the food chain and can penetrate biological barriers to affect multiple physiological functions. However, the adverse effects of nano-plastics on mammals and the underlying mechanism still remain unknown. To fill the gaps, our study administrated low-dose PS-NPs (50 and 100 μg/L) for 24 consecutive weeks in rats. Behavioral and morphological evaluations were performed to assess the neurobehavoirs. A combined analysis of multiple omics was used to evaluate the dysfunctions of the gut-microbe-brain axis. After dihydrochalcone(NHDC) treatment in the PS-NPs rat model, the inflammation response and apoptosis process were assessed and proteomics was used to explore the underlying mechanism. Our results indicated that long-term exposure to low-dose PS-NPs could induce abnormal neurobehaviors and amygdaloid nucleus impairment, and stimulate inflammatory responses and apoptosis. Metagenomics results revealed that four microbial phyla including Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Defferibacteres, and Bacteroidetes changed significantly compared to the control. Targeted metabolomics analysis in the feces showed alteration of 122 metabolites induced by the PS-NPs exposure, among which the content of dihydrocaffeic acid was significantly associated with the different microbial genera and pivotal differential metabolites in the amygdaloid nucleus. And NHDC treatment significantly alleviated PS-NP-induced neuroinflammation and apoptosis and the cyclic adenosine monophosphate(cAMP)/protein kinase A(PKA)/phosphorylated cAMP-response element binding protein(p-CREB)/plasma membrane calcium-transporting ATPase 2(Atp2b2) signaling pathway was identified in the proteomics. In conclusion, long-term exposure to low-dose PS-NPs has adverse effects on emotion through the dysregulation of the gut-brain axis, and dihydrocaffeic acid can alleviate these effects via the cAMP/PKA/p-CREB/Atp2b2 signaling pathway.
92Effects of nanoplastic exposure during pregnancy and lactation on neurodevelopment of rat offspring.PubMed
Lei Tian, Yaping Zhang, Jiang Chen, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2024 Aug 5;474:134800. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134800. Epub 2024 Jun 3.
Microplastics have emerged as a prominent global environmental contaminant, and they have been found in both human placenta and breast milk. However, the potential effects and mechanisms of maternal exposure to microplastics at various gestational stages on offspring neurodevelopment remain poorly understood. This investigation delves into the potential neurodevelopmental ramifications of maternal exposure to polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) during distinct phases of pregnancy and lactation. Targeted metabolomics shows that co-exposure during both pregnancy and lactation primarily engendered alterations in monoamine neurotransmitters within the cortex and amino acid neurotransmitters within the hippocampus. After prenatal exposure to PS-NPs, fetal rats showed appreciably diminished cortical thickness and heightened cortical cell proliferation. However, this exposure did not affect the neurodifferentiation of radial glial cells and intermediate progenitor cells. In addition, offspring are accompanied by disordered neocortical migration, typified by escalated superficial layer neurons proliferation and reduced deep layer neurons populations. Moreover, the hippocampal synapses showed significantly widened synaptic clefts and diminished postsynaptic density. Consequently, PS-NPs culminated in deficits in anxiolytic-like behaviors and spatial memory in adolescent offspring, aligning with concurrent neurotransmitter and synaptic alterations. In conclusion, this study elucidates the sensitive windows of early-life nanoplastic exposure and the consequential impact on offspring neurodevelopment.
93Pulmonary Flora-Derived Lipopolysaccharide Mediates Lung-Brain Axis through Activating Microglia Involved in Polystyrene Microplastic-Induced Cognitive Dysfunction.PubMed
Huiwen Kang, Danyang Huang, Wei Zhang, et al.
Adv Sci (Weinh). 2024 Dec;11(47):e2404966. doi: 10.1002/advs.202404966. Epub 2024 Nov 5.
Microplastics (MPs) have been detected in the atmospheric and the human respiratory system, indicating that the respiratory tract is a significant exposure route for MPs. However, the effect of inhaled MPs on cognitive function has not been adequately studied. Here, a C57BL/6 J mouse model of inhalation exposure to polystyrene MPs (PS-MPs, 5 µm, 60 d) is established by intratracheal instillation. Interestingly, in vivo fluorescence imaging and transmission electron microscopy reveal that PS-MPs do not accumulate in the brain. However, behavioral experiments shows that cognitive function of mice is impaired, accompanied by histopathological damage of lung and brain tissue. Transcriptomic studies in hippocampal and lung tissue have demonstrated key neuroplasticity factors as well as cognitive deficits linked to lung injury, respectively. Mechanistically, the lung-brain axis plays a central role in PS-MPs-induced neurological damage, as demonstrated by pulmonary flora transplantation, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) intervention, and cell co-culture experiments. Together, inhalation of PS-MPs reduces cognitive function by altering the composition of pulmonary flora to produce more LPS and promoting M1 polarization of microglia, which provides new insights into the mechanism of nerve damage caused by inhaled MPs and also sheds new light on the prevention of neurotoxicity of environmental pollutants.
94Do microplastics play a role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases? Shared pathophysiological pathways for Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease.PubMed
Alexander Chi Wang Siu, Keshav Raj Paudel, Gurjeet Singh, et al.
Mol Cell Biochem. 2025 Nov 18. doi: 10.1007/s11010-025-05428-3.
The widespread presence of microplastics (MPs) in the environment has raised significant concerns about their potential impact on human health. As of 2023, the Ocean Conservancy estimates that adults may ingest up to 121,000 MPs annually. While the majority of these particles are cleared from the body, a small fraction can persist, as MPs are non-biodegradable and resist breakdown, posing long-term health risks that remain poorly understood. This review explores the emerging link between MP exposure and the development of neurodegenerative diseases, particularly Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease [1]. MPs appear capable of triggering neurotoxic pathways, including activation of resident immune cells in the brain, oxidative stress, blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuronal damage, which may contribute to neuroinflammation and disease progression. Specifically, six MP-related mechanistic pathways associated with AD were identified: BBB disruption, chronic inflammation, oxidative stress and ROS generation, mitochondrial dysfunction, impaired autophagy and proteostasis, and epigenetic alterations. Similarly, six pathways were implicated in PD: BBB disruption, oxidative stress in dopaminergic neurons, mitochondrial dysfunction, microglial-driven neuroinflammation, α-synuclein aggregation, and gut-brain axis [2] disruption. Ultimately, our findings underscore the urgent need for further research into the neurological consequences of chronic MP exposure in humans and highlight the importance of strengthening global policies to curb plastic pollution and mitigate its long-term health risks.
95Cardiotoxicity of Microplastics: An Emerging Cardiovascular Risk Factor.PubMed
Bhanu Duggal, Ghanshyam Kumar
Curr Cardiol Rev. 2025;21(5):1-5. doi: 10.2174/011573403X366030250404105925.
The widespread use of plastics and improper disposal have resulted in the ubiquity of microplastics in the environment, from uninhabited polar regions to terrestrial ecosystems. This ubiquity poses significant health concerns for our environment and health. Various in vitro, in vivo, and ex vivo studies have indicated microplastic toxicity in humans' respiratory, digestive, neurological, reproductive, and developmental health. Recent studies have pointed out that these microplastics also have cardiovascular toxicity. Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the number one killer in the world, with over 20 million annual deaths worldwide. Hence, microplastics, as a potential risk factor for CVDs, can result in a significant increase in mortality and morbidity because almost everyone is currently exposed to microplastics. This perspective article explores the toxic effects of microplastics on cardiovascular human health. It focuses on various studies that have found microplastics from human arteries/cardiac tissues and their potential role in atherosclerosis and subsequent increases in myocardial infarction, stroke, and mortality. Studies reported the presence of various microplastics, such as polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyamide, and polystyrene, in cardiac tissues and arteries (coronary, aorta, cerebral, and carotid). Studies have suggested a potential negative correlation between microplastics and cardiovascular health, with the presence or increased concentration of microplastics linked to greater severity of health issues. Still, a causal relationship is yet to be established. Future studies, such as cohorts, should focus on deciphering and establishing whether microplastics are a potential cardiovascular risk factor.
96Micro-nanoplastics and cardiovascular diseases: evidence and perspectives.PubMed
Francesco Prattichizzo, Antonio Ceriello, Valeria Pellegrini, et al.
Eur Heart J. 2024 Oct 7;45(38):4099-4110. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehae552.
Emerging evidence indicates that chemical exposures in the environment are overlooked drivers of cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Recent evidence suggests that micro- and nanoplastic (MNP) particles derived largely from the chemical or mechanical degradation of plastics might represent a novel CVD risk factor. Experimental data in preclinical models suggest that MNPs can foster oxidative stress, platelet aggregation, cell senescence, and inflammatory responses in endothelial and immune cells while promoting a range of cardiovascular and metabolic alterations that can lead to disease and premature death. In humans, MNPs derived from various plastics, including polyethylene and polyvinylchloride, have been detected in atherosclerotic plaques and other cardiovascular tissues, including pericardia, epicardial adipose tissues, pericardial adipose tissues, myocardia, and left atrial appendages. MNPs have measurable levels within thrombi and seem to accumulate preferentially within areas of vascular lesions. Their presence within carotid plaques is associated with subsequent increased incidence of cardiovascular events. To further investigate the possible causal role of MNPs in CVD, future studies should focus on large, prospective cohorts assessing the exposure of individuals to plastic-related pollution, the possible routes of absorption, the existence of a putative safety limit, the correspondence between exposure and accumulation in tissues, the timing between accumulation and CVD development, and the pathophysiological mechanisms instigated by pertinent concentrations of MNPs. Data from such studies would allow the design of preventive, or even therapeutic, strategies. Meanwhile, existing evidence suggests that reducing plastic production and use will produce benefits for the environment and for human health. This goal could be achieved through the UN Global Plastics Treaty that is currently in negotiation.
97Micro- and nanoplastics: A new cardiovascular risk factor?PubMed
Xiaoqi Zhu, Chuanxuan Wang, Xiaoyu Duan, et al.
Environ Int. 2023 Jan;171:107662. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2022.107662. Epub 2022 Nov 26.
Exposure to micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) is inevitable due to their omnipresence in the environment. A growing body of studies has advanced our understanding of the potential toxicity of MNPs but knowledge gaps still exist regarding the adverse effects of MNPs on the cardiovascular system and underlying mechanisms, particularly in humans. Here, we reviewed up-to-date data published in the past 10 years on MNP-driven cardiovascular toxicity and mechanisms. Forty-six articles concerning ADME (absorption, distribution, and aggregation behaviors) and toxicity of MNPs in the circulatory system of animals and human cells were analyzed and summarized. The results showed that MNPs affected cardiac functions and caused toxicity on (micro)vascular sites. Direct cardiac toxicity of MNPs included abnormal heart rate, cardiac function impairment, pericardial edema, and myocardial fibrosis. On (micro)vascular sites, MNPs induced hemolysis, thrombosis, blood coagulation, and vascular endothelial damage. The main mechanisms included oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, pyroptosis, and interaction between MNPs and multiple cellular components. Cardiovascular toxicity was determined by the properties (type, size, surface, and structure) of MNPs, exposure dose and duration, protein presence, the life stage, sex, and species of the tested organisms, as well as the interaction with other environmental contamination. The limited quantitative information on MNPs' ADME and the lack of guidelines for MNP cardiotoxicity testing makes risk assessment on cardiac health impossible. Furthermore, the future directions of cardiovascular research on MNPs are recommended to enable more realistic health risk assessment.
98Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Atheromas and Cardiovascular Events.PubMed
Raffaele Marfella, Francesco Prattichizzo, Celestino Sardu, et al.
N Engl J Med. 2024 Mar 7;390(10):900-910. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2309822.
BACKGROUND: Microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) are emerging as a potential risk factor for cardiovascular disease in preclinical studies. Direct evidence that this risk extends to humans is lacking. METHODS: We conducted a prospective, multicenter, observational study involving patients who were undergoing carotid endarterectomy for asymptomatic carotid artery disease. The excised carotid plaque specimens were analyzed for the presence of MNPs with the use of pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, stable isotope analysis, and electron microscopy. Inflammatory biomarkers were assessed with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunohistochemical assay. The primary end point was a composite of myocardial infarction, stroke, or death from any cause among patients who had evidence of MNPs in plaque as compared with patients with plaque that showed no evidence of MNPs. RESULTS: A total of 304 patients were enrolled in the study, and 257 completed a mean (±SD) follow-up of 33.7±6.9 months. Polyethylene was detected in carotid artery plaque of 150 patients (58.4%), with a mean level of 21.7±24.5 μg per milligram of plaque; 31 patients (12.1%) also had measurable amounts of polyvinyl chloride, with a mean level of 5.2±2.4 μg per milligram of plaque. Electron microscopy revealed visible, jagged-edged foreign particles among plaque macrophages and scattered in the external debris. Radiographic examination showed that some of these particles included chlorine. Patients in whom MNPs were detected within the atheroma were at higher risk for a primary end-point event than those in whom these substances were not detected (hazard ratio, 4.53; 95% confidence interval, 2.00 to 10.27; P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: In this study, patients with carotid artery plaque in which MNPs were detected had a higher risk of a composite of myocardial infarction, stroke, or death from any cause at 34 months of follow-up than those in whom MNPs were not detected. (Funded by Programmi di Ricerca Scientifica di Rilevante Interesse Nazionale and others; ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT05900947.).
99Detection of Various Microplastics in Patients Undergoing Cardiac Surgery.PubMed
Yunxiao Yang, Enzehua Xie, Zhiyong Du, et al.
Environ Sci Technol. 2023 Aug 1;57(30):10911-10918. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.2c07179. Epub 2023 Jul 13.
Microplastics have been detected in human stool, lungs, and placentas, which have direct exposure to the external environment through various body cavities, including the oral/anal cavity and uterine/vaginal cavity. Crucial data on microplastic exposure in completely enclosed human organs are still lacking. Herein, we used a laser direct infrared chemical imaging system and scanning electron microscopy to investigate whether microplastics exist in the human heart and its surrounding tissues. Microplastic specimens were collected from 15 cardiac surgery patients, including 6 pericardia, 6 epicardial adipose tissues, 11 pericardial adipose tissues, 3 myocardia, 5 left atrial appendages, and 7 pairs of pre- and postoperative venous blood samples. Microplastics were not universally present in all tissue samples, but nine types were found across five types of tissue with the largest measuring 469 μm in diameter. Nine types of microplastics were also detected in pre- and postoperative blood samples with a maximum diameter of 184 μm, and the type and diameter distribution of microplastics in the blood showed alterations following the surgical procedure. Moreover, the presence of poly(methyl methacrylate) in the left atrial appendage, epicardial adipose tissue, and pericardial adipose tissue cannot be attributed to accidental exposure during surgery, providing direct evidence of microplastics in patients undergoing cardiac surgery. Further research is needed to examine the impact of surgery on microplastic introduction and the potential effects of microplastics in internal organs on human health.
100Long-Chain Acyl Carnitines Aggravate Polystyrene Nanoplastics-Induced Atherosclerosis by Upregulating MARCO.PubMed
Bo Wang, Boxuan Liang, Yuji Huang, et al.
Adv Sci (Weinh). 2023 Jul;10(19):e2205876. doi: 10.1002/advs.202205876. Epub 2023 May 5.
Exposure to micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) is common because of their omnipresence in environment. Recent studies have revealed that MNPs may cause atherosclerosis, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. To address this bottleneck, ApoE mice are exposed to 2.5-250 mg kg polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs, 50 nm) by oral gavage with a high-fat diet for 19 weeks. It is found that PS-NPs in blood and aorta of mouse exacerbate the artery stiffness and promote atherosclerotic plaque formation. PS-NPs activate phagocytosis of M1-macrophage in the aorta, manifesting as upregulation of macrophage receptor with collagenous structure (MARCO). Moreover, PS-NPs disrupt lipid metabolism and increase long-chain acyl carnitines (LCACs). LCAC accumulation is attributed to the PS-NP-inhibited hepatic carnitine palmitoyltransferase 2. PS-NPs, as well as LCACs alone, aggravate lipid accumulation via upregulating MARCO in the oxidized low-density lipoprotein-activated foam cells. Finally, synergistic effects of PS-NPs and LCACs on increasing total cholesterol in foam cells are found. Overall, this study indicates that LCACs aggravate PS-NP-induced atherosclerosis by upregulating MARCO. This study offers new insight into the mechanisms underlying MNP-induced cardiovascular toxicity, and highlights the combined effects of MNPs with endogenous metabolites on the cardiovascular system, which warrant further study.
101Concerning influences of micro/nano plastics on female reproductive health: focusing on cellular and molecular pathways from animal models to human studies.PubMed
Hasti Balali, Ali Morabbi, Mohammad Karimian
Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 2024 Nov 11;22(1):141. doi: 10.1186/s12958-024-01314-7.
The female reproductive system can face serious disorders and show reproductive abnormalities under the influence of environmental pollutants. Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) as emerging pollutants, by affecting different components of this system, may make female fertility a serious challenge. Animal studies have demonstrated that exposure to these substances weakens the function of ovaries and causes a decrease in ovarian reserve capacity. Also, continuous exposure to micro/nano plastics (MNPs) leads to increased levels of reactive oxygen species, induction of oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, apoptosis of granulosa cells, and reduction of the number of ovarian follicles. Furthermore, by interfering with the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis, these particles disturb the normal levels of ovarian androgens and endocrine balance and delay the growth of gonads. Exposure to MNPs can accelerate carcinogenesis in the female reproductive system in humans and animal models. Animal studies have determined that these particles can accumulate in the placenta, causing metabolic changes, disrupting the development of the fetus, and endangering the health of future generations. In humans, the presence of micro/nanoplastics in placenta tissue, infant feces, and breast milk has been reported. These particles can directly affect the health of the mother and fetus, increasing the risk of premature birth and other pregnancy complications. This review aims to outline the hazardous effects of micro/nano plastics on female reproductive health and fetal growth and discuss the results of animal experiments and human research focusing on cellular and molecular pathways.
102Identification of microplastics in human placenta using laser direct infrared spectroscopy.PubMed
Long Zhu, Jingying Zhu, Rui Zuo, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2023 Jan 15;856(Pt 1):159060. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159060. Epub 2022 Sep 26.
Microplastics are ubiquitous in the environment, including in food and drinking water. Consequently, there is growing concern about the human health risks associated with microplastic exposure through diet. However, the occurrence of microplastics in the human body, particularly in mothers and fetuses, is incompletely understood because of the limited amount of data on their presence in the body and the human placenta. This study evaluated the presence and characteristics of microplastics in 17 placentas using laser direct infrared (LD-IR) spectroscopy. Microplastics were detected in all placenta samples, with an average abundance of 2.70 ± 2.65 particles/g and a range of 0.28 to 9.55 particles/g. Among these microplastics, 11 polymer types were identified. The microplastics were mainly composed of polyvinyl chloride (PVC, 43.27 %), polypropylene (PP, 14.55 %), and polybutylene succinate (PBS, 10.90 %). The sizes of these microplastics ranged from 20.34 to 307.29 μm, and most (80.29 %) were smaller than 100 μm. Most of the smaller microplastics were fragments, but fibers dominated the larger microplastics (200-307.29 μm). Interestingly, the majority of PVC and PP were smaller than 200 μm. This study provides a clearer understanding of the shape, size, and nature of microplastics in the human placenta. Importantly, these data also provide crucial information for performing risk assessments of the exposure of fetuses to microplastics in the future.
103Microplastics in maternal blood, fetal appendages, and umbilical vein blood.PubMed
Hanxiang Sun, Xiujuan Su, Jing Mao, et al.
Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2024 Nov 15;287:117300. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.117300. Epub 2024 Nov 6.
Microplastics (MPs) have been detected in placenta and amniotic fluid, but there is no research on whether MPs exist in the other two fetal appendages: fetal membrane and umbilical cord. Additionally, the existence of MPs in umbilical vein blood remains unexplored. Furthermore, it is unclear whether MPs in maternal blood are associated with those in umbilical vein blood and fetal appendages. In this study, we selected 12 full-term pregnant people who delivered by cesarean section, and finally detected 16 kinds of MPs from maternal blood, fetal appendages, and umbilical vein blood by laser direct infrared (LDIR). Polyamide accounted for the highest proportion in the six kinds of samples, followed by Polyurethane. The total MPs median abundance in six kinds of samples were umbilical cord, maternal blood, fetal membrane, amniotic fluid, placenta and umbilical vein blood from high to low, and the specific values were 10.397 particles/g, 8.176 particles/g, 6.561 particles/g, 4.795 particles/g, 4.675 particles/g, and 2.726 particles/g respectively. Moreover, more than 90 % of MPs measured between 20 and 100 μm in diameter. We also found that MPs abundance in amniotic fluid increased with the increase of maternal age (R=0.64, p=0.025) and body mass index before pregnancy (r = 0.59, p= 0.049). However, no statistically significant association was found between lifestyle factors and MPs abundance. Future studies should aim to expand the sample size for further investigation.
104Maternal exposure to polystyrene nanoparticles retarded fetal growth and triggered metabolic disorders of placenta and fetus in mice.PubMed
Guangquan Chen, Shiyi Xiong, Qiao Jing, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2023 Jan 1;854:158666. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158666. Epub 2022 Sep 13.
Microplastics can enter the human body via direct body contact or the food chain, increasing the likelihood of adverse impacts on pregnancy and fetal development. We investigated the potential effects and modes of action of polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) in placenta and fetus using mice as a model species. Maternal PS-NP exposure (100 nm; 1 and 10 mg/L) via drinking water induced a significant decline in fetal weights at the higher exposure concentration. Abnormal morphologies of cells in the placenta and fetus were observed after exposure. For the placenta, transcriptomic analyses indicated that PS-NPs significantly disturbed cholesterol metabolism and complement and coagulation cascades pathways. Metabolomics showed appreciable metabolic disorders, particularly affecting sucrose and daidzein concentrations. For the fetal skeletal muscle, transcriptomics identified many significantly regulated genes, involving muscle tissue development, lipid metabolism, and skin formation. Transcriptomic analysis of the placenta and fetal skeletal muscle at the high PS-NP concentration showed that APOA4 and its transcriptional factors, facilitating cholesterol transportation, were significantly regulated in both tissues. Our study revealed that PS-NPs caused fetal growth restriction and significantly disturbed cholesterol metabolism in both placenta and fetus, offering new insights into the mechanisms underlying the placental and fetal effects in mice exposed to PS-NPs.
105Beyond the cradle - Amidst microplastics and the ongoing peril during pregnancy and neonatal stages: A holistic review.PubMed
Indrani Paul, Pritam Mondal, Dibyajyoti Haldar, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2024 May 5;469:133963. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.133963. Epub 2024 Mar 6.
Advancements in research concerning the occurrence of microplastics (MPs) in human blood, sputum, urine, and breast milk samples have piqued the interest of the scientific community, prompting further investigation. MPs present in the placenta, amniotic fluid, and meconium raise concerns about interference with embryonic development, leading to preeclampsia, stillbirth, preterm birth, and spontaneous abortion. The challenges posed by MPs extend beyond pregnancy, affecting the digestive, reproductive, circulatory, immune, and central nervous systems. This has spurred scientists to examine the origins of MPs in distinct environmental layers, including air, water, and soil. These risks continue after birth, as neonates are continuously exposed to MPs through everyday items such as breast milk, cow milk and infant milk powder, as well as plastic-based products like feeding bottles and breast milk storage bags. It is the need of the hour to strike a balance amidst lifestyle changes, alternative choices to traditional plastic products, raising awareness about plastic-related health risks, and fostering collaboration between the scientific community and policymakers. This review aims to provide fresh insights into potential sources of MP pollution, with a specific focus on pregnancy and neonates. It is the first compilation of its kind so far that includes critical studies on recently reported discoveries.
106Exposure to microplastics during pregnancy and fetal liver function.PubMed
Chuanzhuo Wang, Hua Chang, Huan Wang, et al.
Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2025 Apr 1;294:118099. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2025.118099. Epub 2025 Mar 31.
Emerging evidence suggests that in-utero exposure to microplastics (MPs) may have physiological consequences for fetal development, yet human data remain limited. This study investigates the association between placental microplastic exposure and umbilical liver enzyme levels as markers of fetal hepatic function. A prospective cohort study was conducted in Shenyang, China, including 1057 pregnant women. Placental microplastic quantification was performed using LD-IR chemical imaging, targeting polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polypropylene (PP), and polybutylene succinate (PBS). Umbilical cord blood was collected at delivery, and liver enzyme levels alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) were analyzed using biochemical assays. Associations were assessed via multivariable regression models adjusting for maternal and socioeconomic confounders. Mixture effects were examined using Bayesian Kernel Machine Regression (BKMR) and quantile g-computation (g-comp). Placental microplastics were detected in most samples (PVC: 88.4 %, PP: 88.8 %, PBS: 89.1 %), with a median total MPs of 12 particles per 10 g of tissue (IQR: 8). Higher placental PVC particles was significantly associated with increased ALP levels (β = 28.07, 95 % CI: 6.65-49.49, p = 0.01). PP exposure correlated positively with ALT (β = 0.63, 95 % CI: 0.01-1.25, p = 0.05) and AST (β = 3.42, 95 % CI: 0.87-5.96, p = 0.01). Both PP and total MPs burden exhibited strong associations with GGT elevation (p < 0.01). Mixture analysis revealed significant overall effects on ALP (β = 30.04, 95 % CI: 11.15-48.92, p < 0.01), AST (β = 7.30, 95 % CI: 4.33-10.27, p < 0.01), and GGT (β = 22.98, 95 % CI: 7.49-38.46, p < 0.01), with ALT showing a suggestive positive trend. Our findings provide novel evidence that placental MP exposure is associated with altered fetal liver enzyme levels, particularly ALP, AST, and GGT, indicating potential impacts on hepatic function. These results underscore the need for further investigation into the underlying mechanisms and long-term health implications of prenatal MP exposure.
107Lifelong exposure to polystyrene-nanoplastics induces an attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder-like phenotype and impairs brain aging in mice.PubMed
Anaïs N Vignon, Gaëlle Dudon, Giulia Oliva, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2025 Aug 15;494:138640. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.138640. Epub 2025 May 16.
The accumulation of plastic waste in the environment, breaking down into micro- and nanoplastics, poses significant threats to ecosystem and human health. Plastic particles have been detected in human blood, urine, and placental tissue, indicating widespread exposure. While their long-term health impacts remain unclear, developing brains, especially in fetuses and children, may be vulnerable, potentially resulting in behavioral changes or neurodevelopmental disorders. This study explores the effects of chronic exposure to 23-nm polystyrene nanoplastics at 10 µg/day/kg in wild-type mice across life stages, using exposure levels reflective of human reality. Maternal exposure disrupted critical developmental milestones in pups. In adulthood, exposed mice exhibited Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)-like traits, including hyperactivity, increased risk-taking behaviors, and impaired motor learning and executive functions. In aging mice, exposure was associated with a lower epileptic threshold, with developing seizures. These behavioral changes were linked to altered gene and synaptic protein expression associated with ADHD and epilepsy. At the cellular level, lifelong nanoplastic exposure caused lysosomal dysfunctions and increased lipofuscin accumulation, indicative of accelerated brain aging. These findings align with the growing prevalence of ADHD and epilepsy in humans, particularly children and the elderly, emphasizing the urgent need to address plastic pollution and its health implications.
108Impact of urinary microplastic exposure on cognitive function in primary school children.PubMed
Donghan Zheng, Dan Wang, Shuo Zhang, et al.
Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2025 Sep 1;302:118532. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2025.118532. Epub 2025 Jun 27.
Microplastic (MP) contamination is a growing environmental concern, with potential implications for human health. Emerging evidence suggests that MPs may interfere with neurodevelopment. However, the association of urinary microplastic exposure on cognitive function in children remain poorly understood. This cross-sectional study aimed to assess the impact of urinary MPs exposure on cognitive development in 5670 primary school children (ages 7-10) from Shenyang, China. Microplastics, including polyamide (PA), polypropylene (PP), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), were measured in urine samples, and cognitive development was evaluated using computerized tasks that assessed working memory and attention. Urinary microplastic levels varied widely, with median concentrations of 15 n/100 mL for total microplastics. Linear mixed-effects models revealed significant negative associations between higher urinary PA, PP, and total MPs exposure with reduced working memory performance (PA: β = -9.98, p < 0.001; PP: β = -4.95, p = 0.01). The association remained significant for superior working memory, with PP and PVC showing significant negative effects (PP: β = -1.77, p = 0.02; PVC: β = -2.05, p = 0.01). Additionally, total MPs exposure was associated with increased inattentiveness, as indicated by higher reaction time variability (β = -1.83, p = 0.04). Bayesian Kernel Machine Regression (BKMR) analysis revealed a dose-dependent negative association between urinary microplastics exposure and cognitive development, with higher exposure levels linked to impaired working memory in both the Two-Back and Three-Back tasks, while no consistent association was observed with inattentiveness (HRT-SE). Generalized Quantile-Weighted Sum (gQWS), and Quantile g-computation (g-comp) analyses further supported the findings, with g-comp models showing a stronger effect on working memory (β = -9.80, p < 0.01) and superior working memory (β = -2.35, p < 0.01). These results highlight the potential harmful effects of microplastic exposure on cognitive outcomes in children.
109Urinary microplastic contaminants in primary school children: Associations with behavioral development.PubMed
Lingling Dong, Xiang Li, Yue Zhang, et al.
Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2025 Apr 15;295:118097. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2025.118097. Epub 2025 Apr 3.
Behavioral problems in children have been increasingly linked to environmental exposures. Microplastics (MPs), prevalent in urban environments, are emerging contaminants with potential neurodevelopmental effects. This study examines the relationship between urinary MPs and behavioral outcomes among primary school children in Shenyang, China. This study was conducted involving 1000 children aged 6-9 years from 40 schools across Shenyang. Urinary MPs, including polyamide (PA), polypropylene (PP), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), were quantified using optical microscopy. Behavioral outcomes were assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Mixed-effect negative binomial models evaluated associations between MPs and SDQ scores, adjusting for relevant covariates. The median urinary total microplastic concentration was 9 particles/100 mL. Increased particle counts of urinary MPs were positively associated with higher scores for emotional problems, conduct problems, hyperactivity, and peer problems. Total microplastic levels were linked to increased emotional symptoms (estimate: 0.128, 95 % CI: 0.065-0.198, p < 0.001), conduct problems (estimate: 0.231, 95 % CI: 0.140-0.323, p < 0.001), and hyperactivity (estimate: 0.168, 95 % CI: 0.101-0.235, p < 0.001). Peer relationship issues were also elevated with higher urinary microplastic levels (estimate: 0.206, 95 % CI: 0.133-0.271, p < 0.001). Conversely, prosocial behaviors declined with increased microplastic concentrations (estimate: -0.125, 95 % CI: -0.192 to -0.052, p = 0.001). Stratified analyses indicated no significant differences in these associations between boys and girls. Overall, urinary microplastic concentrations were significantly associated with adverse behavioral outcomes in children, highlighting the potential neurodevelopmental risks of microplastic exposure.
110How microplastic components influence the immune system and impact on children health: Focus on cancer.PubMed
Mariana Segovia-Mendoza, Karen E Nava-Castro, Margarita I Palacios-Arreola, et al.
Birth Defects Res. 2020 Oct;112(17):1341-1361. doi: 10.1002/bdr2.1779. Epub 2020 Aug 6.
BACKGROUND: As a result of human socioeconomic activity, industrial wastes have increased distressingly. Plastic pollution is globally distributed across the world due to its properties of buoyancy and durability. A big health hazard is the sorption of toxicants to plastic while traveling through the environment. Two broad classes of plastic-related chemicals are of critical concern for human health-bisphenols and phthalates. Bisphenol A (BPA) is an endocrine-disruptor compound (EDC) with estrogenic activity. It is used in the production of materials that are used daily. The endocrine modulating activity of BPA and its effects on reproductive health has been widely studied. BPA also has effects on the immune system; however, they are poorly investigated and the available data are inconclusive. Phthalates are also EDCs used as plasticizers in a wide array of daily-use products. Since these compounds are not covalently bound to the plastic matrix, they easily leach out from it, leading to high human exposure. These compounds exert several cell effects through modulating different endocrine pathways, such as estrogen, androgen, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, and arylhydrocarbon receptor pathways. The exposure to both classes of plastic derivatives during critical periods has detrimental effects on human health. METHODS: In this review, we have compiled the most important of their perinatal effects on the function of the immune system and their relationship to the development of different types of cancer. RESULTS/CONCLUSION: The administration of bisphenols and phthalates during critical stages of development affects important immune system components, and the immune function; which might be related to the development of different diseases including cancer.
111Chemical exposures of women workers in the plastics industry with particular reference to breast cancer and reproductive hazards.PubMed
Robert DeMatteo, Margaret M Keith, James T Brophy, et al.
New Solut. 2012;22(4):427-48. doi: 10.2190/NS.22.4.d.
Despite concern about the harmful effects of substances contained in various plastic consumer products, little attention has focused on the more heavily exposed women working in the plastics industry. Through a review of the toxicology, industrial hygiene, and epidemiology literatures in conjunction with qualitative research, this article explores occupational exposures in producing plastics and health risks to workers, particularly women, who make up a large part of the workforce. The review demonstrates that workers are exposed to chemicals that have been identified as mammary carcinogens and endocrine disrupting chemicals, and that the work environment is heavily contaminated with dust and fumes. Consequently, plastics workers have a body burden that far exceeds that found in the general public. The nature of these exposures in the plastics industry places women at disproportionate risk, underlining the importance of gender. Measures for eliminating these exposures and the need for regulatory action are discussed.
112Potential Effects of Environmental and Occupational Exposure to Microplastics: An Overview of Air Contamination.PubMed
Priscilla Boccia, Simona Mondellini, Simona Mauro, et al.
Toxics. 2024 Apr 28;12(5):320. doi: 10.3390/toxics12050320.
Microplastics (MPs) are now ubiquitous environmental contaminants that lead to unavoidable human exposure; they have received increasing attention in recent years and have become an emerging area of research. The greatest concern is the negative impacts of MPs on marine, fresh-water, and terrestrial ecosystems, as well as human health, to the extent that the World Health Organization (WHO) calls for increased research and standardized methods to assess exposure to MPs. Many countries and international organizations are implementing or proposing legislation in this regard. This review aims to summarize the current state of legislation, indoor and outdoor contamination, and potential human health risk due to exposure to airborne MPs, considering that occupational exposure to MPs is also becoming a growing area of concern. Even though research regarding MPs has continuously increased in the last twenty years, the effects of MPs on human health have been scarcely investigated, and toxicity studies are still limited and not directly comparable, due to the lack of standardized studies in this field.
113Increased urinary 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine levels in workers exposed to di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in a waste plastic recycling site in China.PubMed
Qian Wang, Li Wang, Xi Chen, et al.
Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2011 Jul;18(6):987-96. doi: 10.1007/s11356-010-0420-1. Epub 2011 Feb 6.
BACKGROUND: Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a common plasticizer used in industrial and diverse consumer products. Animal studies indicate DEHP caused developmental, reproductive, and hepatic toxicities. However, human studies of the potential effects of DEHP are limited. METHODS: The exposed site with a history of over 20 years of waste plastic recycling was located in Hunan Province, China. The reference site without known DEHP pollution source was about 50 km far away from the exposed site. In this study, 181 workers working in plastic waste recycling and 160 gender-age matched farmers were recruited. DEHP concentrations in water and cultivated soil samples, serum thyroid-stimulating hormone, malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), urinary 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), and micronuclei frequency in human capillary blood lymphocytes were analyzed. RESULTS: Mean levels of DEHP were greater in environment at the recycling site than at reference site (industry wastewater for the exposed: 42.43 μg/l; well water: 14.20 vs. 0.79 μg/l, pond water: 135.68 vs. 0.37 μg/l, cultivated soil: 13.07 vs. 0.81 mg/kg, p < 0.05 for all). The workers had higher median levels of MDA (3.80 vs. 3.14 nmol/ml) and urinary 8-OHdG (340.37 vs. 268.18 μmol/mol creatinine) and decreased SOD activities (112.15 vs. 123.82 U/ml) than the reference group (p < 0.01 for all). Multivariate analysis revealed that the history of working in waste plastic recycling was an independent risk factor for the increased urinary 8-OHdG levels in the male workers (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The occupational DEHP exposure might contribute to oxidative deoxyribonucleic acid damage in the male workers.
114Airborne microplastics: Consequences to human health?PubMed
Joana Correia Prata
Environ Pollut. 2018 Mar;234:115-126. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.11.043. Epub 2017 Dec 21.
Microplastics have recently been detected in atmospheric fallout in Greater Paris. Due to their small size, they can be inhaled and may induce lesions in the respiratory system dependent on individual susceptibility and particle properties. Even though airborne microplastics are a new topic, several observational studies have reported the inhalation of plastic fibers and particles, especially in exposed workers, often coursing with dyspnea caused by airway and interstitial inflammatory responses. Even though environmental concentrations are low, susceptible individuals may be at risk of developing similar lesions. To better understand airborne microplastics risk to human health, this work summarizes current knowledge with the intention of developing awareness and future research in this area.
115Role of Oxidative Stress in Male Reproductive Dysfunctions with Reference to Phthalate Compounds.PubMed
Sapna Sedha, Sunil Kumar, Shruti Shukla
Urol J. 2015 Nov 14;12(5):2304-16.
PURPOSE: A wide variety of environmental chemicals/xenobiotics including phthalates have been shown to cause oxidative stress targeting the endocrine system and cause reproductive anomalies. The present review describes various issues by oxidative stress causing male reproductive dysfunctions. Here in this review, the importance and role of phthalate compounds in male reproductive dysfunction has been well documented. MATERIALS AND METHODS: One class of environmental endocrine disruptors is phthalates. Phthalate compounds are mostly used as plasticizers, which increase the flexibility, durability, longevity, and etc. of the plastics. Large-scale use of plastic products in our daily life as well as thousands of workers engaged in the manufacture of plastic and plastic products and recycling plastic industry are potentially exposed to these chemicals. Further, general population as well as vulnerable groups i.e. children and pregnant women are also exposed to these chemicals. Phthalates are among wide variety of environmental toxicants capable of compromising male fertility by inducing a state of oxidative stress in the testes. They may also generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) that may affect various physiological and reproductive functions. RESULTS: The available data points out that phthalate compounds may also induce oxidative stress in the male reproductive organs mainly testis and epididymis. They impair spermatogenic process by inducing oxidative stress and apoptosis in germ cells or target sertoli cells and thereby hamper spermatogenesis. They also impair the Leydig cell function by inducing ROS, thereby decreasing the levels of steroidogenic enzymes. CONCLUSION: Thus in utero and postnatal exposure to phthalate compounds might lead to decreased sperm count and various other reproductive anomalies in the young male.
116Relationship between urinary concentrations of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) metabolites and reproductive hormones in polyvinyl chloride production workers.PubMed
Jer-Pei Fong, Fang-Jin Lee, I-Syuan Lu, et al.
Occup Environ Med. 2015 May;72(5):346-53. doi: 10.1136/oemed-2014-102532. Epub 2015 Jan 30.
OBJECTIVES: We investigated the relationship between urinary metabolites of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and reproductive hormones in workers of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) production plants. After exposure, most of the DEHP is rapidly metabolised to mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP), mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (MEHHP) and mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MEOHP), which may be associated with reproductive hormone interruption and testicular toxicity. Some studies report that urinary concentrations of phthalate metabolites for plastics workers are significantly higher than for the general population. However, little is known about the disruption of reproductive hormones for DEHP exposure workers. METHODS: This cross-sectional study of 82 male workers measured the biomarkers for their reproductive hormones and their exposure to DEHP. Relationships between urinary concentrations of DEHP metabolites were estimated using multivariate linear regression and quartile analysis models. RESULTS: The geometric means of urinary creatinine-adjusted (μg/g-Cre) concentrations of MEHP, MEOHP and MEHHP during the post-shift period were 23.9, 66.9 and 84.6, respectively. In multiple regression models adjusted for potential confounders, there were significant positive associations between urinary concentrations of DEHP metabolites and estradiol (E2) (p<0.01), and in the ratio of E2 to testosterone (p<0.05). Moreover, quartile analysis showed significant positive relationships between the total urinary concentration of DEHP metabolites and E2 (ptrend=0.024), and in the ratio of E2 to testosterone (ptrend=0.031). CONCLUSIONS: Relationships between reproductive hormones and the total urinary concentration of DEHP metabolites in male PVC production workers were significantly positive. This indicated that aromatase activity had increased in male workers exposed to DEHP, which is consistent with animal studies.
117Risk assessment from potential exposure to tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) from its use in electronics.PubMed
T G Osimitz, W Droege
Food Chem Toxicol. 2025 Dec;206:115724. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2025.115724. Epub 2025 Sep 3.
Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) is the most extensively used brominated flame retardant worldwide, primarily employed reactively in printed circuit boards and additively in plastic housings of electronic equipment. This study systematically evaluates human exposure to TBBPA from electronic devices and characterizes associated risks. A targeted literature review of 55 peer-reviewed studies published over the past 25 years was conducted, focusing on global TBBPA occurrence in environmental media, occupational and residential settings, and biological matrices. Exposure pathways assessed include dermal contact dust ingestion, and inhalation. Quantitative exposure estimates were generated or extracted where available and compared against established toxicological reference values, including the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 0.7 μg/kg body weight/day and a derived oral Reference Dose (RfD) of 0.26 mg/kg/day for cancer. Hazard Quotients (HQs) calculated across all exposure scenarios, including high-exposure e-waste settings, remained well below 1 indicating a low likelihood of adverse health effects. Likewise, a basic deterministic aggregate exposure assessment shows that upper bound exposure estimates for both an office worker and a worker in an electronics dismantling facility result in the Hazard Index (HI) < 1. Despite methodological variability and inherent uncertainties in exposure attribution, this risk assessment demonstrates that current exposures to TBBPA likely originating from electronic equipment are not of toxicological concern.
118The Minderoo-Monaco Commission on Plastics and Human Health.PubMed
Philip J Landrigan, Hervé Raps, Maureen Cropper, et al.
Ann Glob Health. 2023 Mar 21;89(1):23. doi: 10.5334/aogh.4056. eCollection 2023.
BACKGROUND: Plastics have conveyed great benefits to humanity and made possible some of the most significant advances of modern civilization in fields as diverse as medicine, electronics, aerospace, construction, food packaging, and sports. It is now clear, however, that plastics are also responsible for significant harms to human health, the economy, and the earth's environment. These harms occur at every stage of the plastic life cycle, from extraction of the coal, oil, and gas that are its main feedstocks through to ultimate disposal into the environment. The extent of these harms not been systematically assessed, their magnitude not fully quantified, and their economic costs not comprehensively counted. GOALS: The goals of this Minderoo-Monaco Commission on Plastics and Human Health are to comprehensively examine plastics' impacts across their life cycle on: (1) human health and well-being; (2) the global environment, especially the ocean; (3) the economy; and (4) vulnerable populations-the poor, minorities, and the world's children. On the basis of this examination, the Commission offers science-based recommendations designed to support development of a Global Plastics Treaty, protect human health, and save lives. REPORT STRUCTURE: This Commission report contains seven Sections. Following an Introduction, Section 2 presents a narrative review of the processes involved in plastic production, use, and disposal and notes the hazards to human health and the environment associated with each of these stages. Section 3 describes plastics' impacts on the ocean and notes the potential for plastic in the ocean to enter the marine food web and result in human exposure. Section 4 details plastics' impacts on human health. Section 5 presents a first-order estimate of plastics' health-related economic costs. Section 6 examines the intersection between plastic, social inequity, and environmental injustice. Section 7 presents the Commission's findings and recommendations. PLASTICS: Plastics are complex, highly heterogeneous, synthetic chemical materials. Over 98% of plastics are produced from fossil carbon- coal, oil and gas. Plastics are comprised of a carbon-based polymer backbone and thousands of additional chemicals that are incorporated into polymers to convey specific properties such as color, flexibility, stability, water repellence, flame retardation, and ultraviolet resistance. Many of these added chemicals are highly toxic. They include carcinogens, neurotoxicants and endocrine disruptors such as phthalates, bisphenols, per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), brominated flame retardants, and organophosphate flame retardants. They are integral components of plastic and are responsible for many of plastics' harms to human health and the environment.Global plastic production has increased almost exponentially since World War II, and in this time more than 8,300 megatons (Mt) of plastic have been manufactured. Annual production volume has grown from under 2 Mt in 1950 to 460 Mt in 2019, a 230-fold increase, and is on track to triple by 2060. More than half of all plastic ever made has been produced since 2002. Single-use plastics account for 35-40% of current plastic production and represent the most rapidly growing segment of plastic manufacture.Explosive recent growth in plastics production reflects a deliberate pivot by the integrated multinational fossil-carbon corporations that produce coal, oil and gas and that also manufacture plastics. These corporations are reducing their production of fossil fuels and increasing plastics manufacture. The two principal factors responsible for this pivot are decreasing global demand for carbon-based fuels due to increases in 'green' energy, and massive expansion of oil and gas production due to fracking.Plastic manufacture is energy-intensive and contributes significantly to climate change. At present, plastic production is responsible for an estimated 3.7% of global greenhouse gas emissions, more than the contribution of Brazil. This fraction is projected to increase to 4.5% by 2060 if current trends continue unchecked. PLASTIC LIFE CYCLE: The plastic life cycle has three phases: production, use, and disposal. In production, carbon feedstocks-coal, gas, and oil-are transformed through energy-intensive, catalytic processes into a vast array of products. Plastic use occurs in every aspect of modern life and results in widespread human exposure to the chemicals contained in plastic. Single-use plastics constitute the largest portion of current use, followed by synthetic fibers and construction.Plastic disposal is highly inefficient, with recovery and recycling rates below 10% globally. The result is that an estimated 22 Mt of plastic waste enters the environment each year, much of it single-use plastic and are added to the more than 6 gigatons of plastic waste that have accumulated since 1950. Strategies for disposal of plastic waste include controlled and uncontrolled landfilling, open burning, thermal conversion, and export. Vast quantities of plastic waste are exported each year from high-income to low-income countries, where it accumulates in landfills, pollutes air and water, degrades vital ecosystems, befouls beaches and estuaries, and harms human health-environmental injustice on a global scale. Plastic-laden e-waste is particularly problematic. ENVIRONMENTAL FINDINGS: Plastics and plastic-associated chemicals are responsible for widespread pollution. They contaminate aquatic (marine and freshwater), terrestrial, and atmospheric environments globally. The ocean is the ultimate destination for much plastic, and plastics are found throughout the ocean, including coastal regions, the sea surface, the deep sea, and polar sea ice. Many plastics appear to resist breakdown in the ocean and could persist in the global environment for decades. Macro- and micro-plastic particles have been identified in hundreds of marine species in all major taxa, including species consumed by humans. Trophic transfer of microplastic particles and the chemicals within them has been demonstrated. Although microplastic particles themselves (>10 µm) appear not to undergo biomagnification, hydrophobic plastic-associated chemicals bioaccumulate in marine animals and biomagnify in marine food webs. The amounts and fates of smaller microplastic and nanoplastic particles (MNPs <10 µm) in aquatic environments are poorly understood, but the potential for harm is worrying given their mobility in biological systems. Adverse environmental impacts of plastic pollution occur at multiple levels from molecular and biochemical to population and ecosystem. MNP contamination of seafood results in direct, though not well quantified, human exposure to plastics and plastic-associated chemicals. Marine plastic pollution endangers the ocean ecosystems upon which all humanity depends for food, oxygen, livelihood, and well-being. HUMAN HEALTH FINDINGS: Coal miners, oil workers and gas field workers who extract fossil carbon feedstocks for plastic production suffer increased mortality from traumatic injury, coal workers' pneumoconiosis, silicosis, cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer. Plastic production workers are at increased risk of leukemia, lymphoma, hepatic angiosarcoma, brain cancer, breast cancer, mesothelioma, neurotoxic injury, and decreased fertility. Workers producing plastic textiles die of bladder cancer, lung cancer, mesothelioma, and interstitial lung disease at increased rates. Plastic recycling workers have increased rates of cardiovascular disease, toxic metal poisoning, neuropathy, and lung cancer. Residents of "fenceline" communities adjacent to plastic production and waste disposal sites experience increased risks of premature birth, low birth weight, asthma, childhood leukemia, cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer.During use and also in disposal, plastics release toxic chemicals including additives and residual monomers into the environment and into people. National biomonitoring surveys in the USA document population-wide exposures to these chemicals. Plastic additives disrupt endocrine function and increase risk for premature births, neurodevelopmental disorders, male reproductive birth defects, infertility, obesity, cardiovascular disease, renal disease, and cancers. Chemical-laden MNPs formed through the environmental degradation of plastic waste can enter living organisms, including humans. Emerging, albeit still incomplete evidence indicates that MNPs may cause toxicity due to their physical and toxicological effects as well as by acting as vectors that transport toxic chemicals and bacterial pathogens into tissues and cells.Infants in the womb and young children are two populations at particularly high risk of plastic-related health effects. Because of the exquisite sensitivity of early development to hazardous chemicals and children's unique patterns of exposure, plastic-associated exposures are linked to increased risks of prematurity, stillbirth, low birth weight, birth defects of the reproductive organs, neurodevelopmental impairment, impaired lung growth, and childhood cancer. Early-life exposures to plastic-associated chemicals also increase the risk of multiple non-communicable diseases later in life. ECONOMIC FINDINGS: Plastic's harms to human health result in significant economic costs. We estimate that in 2015 the health-related costs of plastic production exceeded $250 billion (2015 Int$) globally, and that in the USA alone the health costs of disease and disability caused by the plastic-associated chemicals PBDE, BPA and DEHP exceeded $920 billion (2015 Int$). Plastic production results in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions equivalent to 1.96 gigatons of carbon dioxide (COe) annually. Using the US Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) social cost of carbon metric, we estimate the annual costs of these GHG emissions to be $341 billion (2015 Int$).These costs, large as they are, almost certainly underestimate the full economic losses resulting from plastics' negative impacts on human health and the global environment. All of plastics' economic costs-and also its social costs-are externalized by the petrochemical and plastic manufacturing industry and are borne by citizens, taxpayers, and governments in countries around the world without compensation. SOCIAL JUSTICE FINDINGS: The adverse effects of plastics and plastic pollution on human health, the economy and the environment are not evenly distributed. They disproportionately affect poor, disempowered, and marginalized populations such as workers, racial and ethnic minorities, "fenceline" communities, Indigenous groups, women, and children, all of whom had little to do with creating the current plastics crisis and lack the political influence or the resources to address it. Plastics' harmful impacts across its life cycle are most keenly felt in the Global South, in small island states, and in disenfranchised areas in the Global North. Social and environmental justice (SEJ) principles require reversal of these inequitable burdens to ensure that no group bears a disproportionate share of plastics' negative impacts and that those who benefit economically from plastic bear their fair share of its currently externalized costs. CONCLUSIONS: It is now clear that current patterns of plastic production, use, and disposal are not sustainable and are responsible for significant harms to human health, the environment, and the economy as well as for deep societal injustices.The main driver of these worsening harms is an almost exponential and still accelerating increase in global plastic production. Plastics' harms are further magnified by low rates of recovery and recycling and by the long persistence of plastic waste in the environment.The thousands of chemicals in plastics-monomers, additives, processing agents, and non-intentionally added substances-include amongst their number known human carcinogens, endocrine disruptors, neurotoxicants, and persistent organic pollutants. These chemicals are responsible for many of plastics' known harms to human and planetary health. The chemicals leach out of plastics, enter the environment, cause pollution, and result in human exposure and disease. All efforts to reduce plastics' hazards must address the hazards of plastic-associated chemicals. RECOMMENDATIONS: To protect human and planetary health, especially the health of vulnerable and at-risk populations, and put the world on track to end plastic pollution by 2040, this Commission supports urgent adoption by the world's nations of a strong and comprehensive Global Plastics Treaty in accord with the mandate set forth in the March 2022 resolution of the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA).International measures such as a Global Plastics Treaty are needed to curb plastic production and pollution, because the harms to human health and the environment caused by plastics, plastic-associated chemicals and plastic waste transcend national boundaries, are planetary in their scale, and have disproportionate impacts on the health and well-being of people in the world's poorest nations. Effective implementation of the Global Plastics Treaty will require that international action be coordinated and complemented by interventions at the national, regional, and local levels.This Commission urges that a cap on global plastic production with targets, timetables, and national contributions be a central provision of the Global Plastics Treaty. We recommend inclusion of the following additional provisions:The Treaty needs to extend beyond microplastics and marine litter to include all of the many thousands of chemicals incorporated into plastics.The Treaty needs to include a provision banning or severely restricting manufacture and use of unnecessary, avoidable, and problematic plastic items, especially single-use items such as manufactured plastic microbeads.The Treaty needs to include requirements on extended producer responsibility (EPR) that make fossil carbon producers, plastic producers, and the manufacturers of plastic products legally and financially responsible for the safety and end-of-life management of all the materials they produce and sell.The Treaty needs to mandate reductions in the chemical complexity of plastic products; health-protective standards for plastics and plastic additives; a requirement for use of sustainable non-toxic materials; full disclosure of all components; and traceability of components. International cooperation will be essential to implementing and enforcing these standards.The Treaty needs to include SEJ remedies at each stage of the plastic life cycle designed to fill gaps in community knowledge and advance both distributional and procedural equity.This Commission encourages inclusion in the Global Plastic Treaty of a provision calling for exploration of listing at least some plastic polymers as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) under the Stockholm Convention.This Commission encourages a strong interface between the Global Plastics Treaty and the Basel and London Conventions to enhance management of hazardous plastic waste and slow current massive exports of plastic waste into the world's least-developed countries.This Commission recommends the creation of a Permanent Science Policy Advisory Body to guide the Treaty's implementation. The main priorities of this Body would be to guide Member States and other stakeholders in evaluating which solutions are most effective in reducing plastic consumption, enhancing plastic waste recovery and recycling, and curbing the generation of plastic waste. This Body could also assess trade-offs among these solutions and evaluate safer alternatives to current plastics. It could monitor the transnational export of plastic waste. It could coordinate robust oceanic-, land-, and air-based MNP monitoring programs.This Commission recommends urgent investment by national governments in research into solutions to the global plastic crisis. This research will need to determine which solutions are most effective and cost-effective in the context of particular countries and assess the risks and benefits of proposed solutions. Oceanographic and environmental research is needed to better measure concentrations and impacts of plastics <10 µm and understand their distribution and fate in the global environment. Biomedical research is needed to elucidate the human health impacts of plastics, especially MNPs. SUMMARY: This Commission finds that plastics are both a boon to humanity and a stealth threat to human and planetary health. Plastics convey enormous benefits, but current linear patterns of plastic production, use, and disposal that pay little attention to sustainable design or safe materials and a near absence of recovery, reuse, and recycling are responsible for grave harms to health, widespread environmental damage, great economic costs, and deep societal injustices. These harms are rapidly worsening.While there remain gaps in knowledge about plastics' harms and uncertainties about their full magnitude, the evidence available today demonstrates unequivocally that these impacts are great and that they will increase in severity in the absence of urgent and effective intervention at global scale. Manufacture and use of essential plastics may continue. However, reckless increases in plastic production, and especially increases in the manufacture of an ever-increasing array of unnecessary single-use plastic products, need to be curbed.Global intervention against the plastic crisis is needed now because the costs of failure to act will be immense.
119Children's Rights, Environmental Justice, and Environmental Health Policy in the United States.PubMed
Mary L Chesney, Karen Duderstadt
J Pediatr Health Care. 2022 Jan-Feb;36(1):3-11. doi: 10.1016/j.pedhc.2021.08.006.
Environmentalists have forewarned that our planet is in peril because of serious degradation and pollution of the earth's land, air, water, and food sources. Climate change is present and worsening at an alarming rate. Gaping disparities exist between high-income and low-income countries and high-income and low-income zip codes in the United States, resulting in marginalized and vulnerable populations bearing the greatest burden from the ill effects of pollution and environmental toxins. Infants and children carry the greatest risk for pollution-related diseases and exposure to chemical toxins as their bodies are rapidly developing. This review article provides a historical overview of children's rights to protection from environmental health risks, effects of environmental injustice, and U.S. statutory and regulatory policies responsible for protecting food, air, and water quality. The authors advocate for policy and clinical strategies to support children's health and the right to environmental protection.
120International quantification of microplastics in indoor dust: prevalence, exposure and risk assessment.PubMed
Neda Sharifi Soltani, Mark Patrick Taylor, Scott Paton Wilson
Environ Pollut. 2022 Nov 1;312:119957. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119957. Epub 2022 Aug 14.
This international scale study measured the prevalence of indoor microplastics (MPs) in deposited dust in 108 homes from 29 countries over a 1-month period. Dust borne MPs shape, colour, and length were determined using microscopy and the composition measured using μFTIR. Human health exposure and risk was assessed along with residential factors associated with MPs via a participant questionnaire. Samples were categorised according to each country's gross national income (GNI). Synthetic polymers dominated in low income (LI) (39%) and high income (HI) (46%) while natural fibres were the most prevalent in medium income (MI) (43%) countries. Composition and statistical analysis showed that the main sources of MPs and dust were predominantly from indoor sources. Across all GNI countries, greater vacuuming frequency was associated with lower MPs loading. High income country samples returned higher proportions of polyamides and polyester fibres, whereas in LI countries polyurethane was the most prominent MPs fibre. Exposure modelling showed infants (0-2 years) were exposed to the highest MPs dose through inhalation (4.5 × 10 ± 3 × 10) and ingestion (3.24 × 10 ± 3.14 × 10) mg/kg-B/day. Health risk analysis of constituent monomers of polymers indicates cancer incidence was estimated at 4.1-8.7 per million persons across age groups. This study's analysis showed socio-economic factors and age were dominant variables in determining dose and associated health outcomes of MPs in household dust.
121Occurrence of microplastics (MPs) in the gastrointestinal tract of fishes: A global systematic review and meta-analysis and meta-regression.PubMed
Mohammadali Zazouli, Habib Nejati, Yalda Hashempour, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2022 Apr 1;815:152743. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152743. Epub 2022 Jan 7.
The presence of Microplastics (MPs) in food has become a global health concern in the last two decades. In this study, an attempt was made to obtain articles about the occurrence of MPs in the gastrointestinal tract (gt) of fishes using searching the Scopus and PubMed databases from 1 January 1990 to 10 August 2021. The occurrence of MPs was meta-analyzed using the random effect model (REM). The results indicate that pooled occurrence of MPs in gastrointestinal of fishes was 2.76 P/gt: 95%CI:2.65-2.86 P/gt. Occurrence MPs in gastrointestinal of fishes in closed water sources (5.86 P/gt) was higher than free water sources (2.46 P/gt). In addition, the rank order of water sources based on occurrence MPs in gastrointestinal of fish was Lake (5.50 P/gt) > Estuary (5.46 P/gt) > River (2.91 P/gt) > Bay (2.85 P/gt) > Sea (2.58 P/gt) > Ocean (1.29 P/gt). The lowest and highest occurrence MPs in gastrointestinal of fishes were observed in high-income economies (1.45 P/gt) and low-income economies (8.08 P/gt), respectively. The higher frequency of color in MPS was related to blue with polyethylene-type polymers. Therefore, control plans to reduce the occurrence of MPs in fishes is recommended.
122Microplastics: challenges of assessment in biological samples and their implication for in vitro and in vivo effects.PubMed
Karen Beatriz Méndez Rodríguez, Jorge Armando Jiménez Avalos, Juan Carlos Fernández Macias, et al.
Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2023 Dec;30(57):119733-119749. doi: 10.1007/s11356-023-30853-6. Epub 2023 Nov 16.
Microplastics (MPs) have attracted global interest because they have been recognized as emerging pollutants that require urgent attention. MPs are plastic particles with a size between 1 micron and 5 mm (1 µm-5mm); those measuring less than 1 µm are known as nanoplastics (NPs). MP is distributed in the environment in various physical forms that depend on the degradation process, the erosion factors to which it was subjected, or the original form in which it was intentionally manufactured. Humans may be exposed to these pollutants mainly by ingestion or inhalation, which could adversely affect human health with effects that are still unknown due to limitations that are often dependent on their analytical determination and lack of studies over time, as it is a relatively new topic. Therefore, this review focuses on the challenges currently faced by laboratories for determining MPs in different matrices. We highlight the application of methods and techniques to assess the precise levels of exposure to MPs in biological samples. In addition, exposure pathways, sources, and evidence of adverse effects reported in vitro and in vivo studies are described to generate knowledge about their potential threat to human health.
123Micro- and Nanoplastics and Fetal Health: Challenges in Assessment and Evidence from Epidemiological Studies.PubMed
Ankica Sekovanić, Tatjana Orct, Zorana Kljaković-Gašpić
Toxics. 2025 May 12;13(5):388. doi: 10.3390/toxics13050388.
The usage of plastics in life and industrial applications has led to global environmental pollution by micro- and nanoplastics (MPs/NPs). Despite their widespread occurrence in the environment, little is known about their presence in humans and the potential implications for human health, particularly maternal and fetal health during the prenatal and neonatal periods. Studies on experimental animals indicate that exposure to MPs/NPs can lead to neurological abnormalities in offspring and hemodynamic alterations in the placenta and fetal cerebral arteries. These findings underscore the need for further epidemiological studies that examine the effects of MPs/NPs on fetal health during pregnancy, a critical period for neurological development. This review summarizes the existing knowledge on the effects of prenatal exposure to MPs/NPs on fetal development and birth outcomes in humans and provides a detailed overview of the challenges encountered in contamination prevention, quality assurance and quality control in analytical procedures. It also discusses the sampling and digestion methods used for the extraction of MPs/NPs from biological samples of maternal and fetal origin, highlighting the difficulties associated with accurately quantifying these particles in complex biological matrices, identifying the gaps in current research, and suggesting recommendations to improve methodologies for assessing the risks associated with prenatal MP/NP exposure.
124Cross-platform detection of microplastics in human biological tissues: Comparing spectroscopic and chromatographic approaches.PubMed
Lin Zhang, Jiaqi Tian, Xiaodan Zhu, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2025 Jul 15;492:138133. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.138133. Epub 2025 Apr 1.
Microplastic (MP) contamination in ecosystems underscores concerns about human bioaccumulation, yet analytical challenges persist due to complex biological matrices and polymer diversity. To systematically evaluate the efficacy of complementary analytical platforms, we conducted this study to systematically evaluate Raman microscopy and pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (py-GC/MS) for complementary MP detection in human biological samples. Building upon prior research frameworks, 48 paired endometrial and urine samples from parturient women were analyzed under rigorously controlled protocols to minimize exogenous contamination. Raman microscopy identified six polymer types, with polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and polystyrene (PS) constituting primary components across both sample types. Particle size distributions spanned 1.23-6.98 μm, exhibiting comparable mean diameters in urine (2.85 ± 1.26 μm) and endometrial samples (2.89 ± 1.40 μm). Subsequent py-GC/MS analysis revealed previously undetected polymer co-occurrences (PS, PC, PE, and PVC) in samples initially classified as single-polymer PTFE or PS via Raman spectroscopy, thereby exposing inherent disparities in method-specific sensitivity and resolution. The follow-up multi-method comparison demonstrates that Raman microscopy excels in particle-specific morphological characterization, while py-GC/MS provides polymer quantification and composite identification. Our findings underscore the necessity of integrating orthogonal analytical approaches to overcome methodological limitations and achieve comprehensive MP profiling in complex biological systems.
125Detection of microplastics in human lung tissue using μFTIR spectroscopy.PubMed
Lauren C Jenner, Jeanette M Rotchell, Robert T Bennett, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2022 Jul 20;831:154907. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154907. Epub 2022 Mar 29.
Airborne microplastics (MPs) have been sampled globally, and their concentration is known to increase in areas of high human population and activity, especially indoors. Respiratory symptoms and disease following exposure to occupational levels of MPs within industry settings have also been reported. It remains to be seen whether MPs from the environment can be inhaled, deposited and accumulated within the human lungs. This study analysed digested human lung tissue samples (n = 13) using μFTIR spectroscopy (size limitation of 3 μm) to detect and characterise any MPs present. In total, 39 MPs were identified within 11 of the 13 lung tissue samples with an average of 1.42 ± 1.50 MP/g of tissue (expressed as 0.69 ± 0.84 MP/g after background subtraction adjustments). The MP levels within tissue samples were significantly higher than those identified within combined procedural/laboratory blanks (n = 9 MPs, with a mean ± SD of 0.53 ± 1.07, p = 0.001). Of the MPs detected, 12 polymer types were identified with polypropylene, PP (23%), polyethylene terephthalate, PET (18%) and resin (15%) the most abundant. MPs (unadjusted) were identified within all regions of the lung categorised as upper (0.80 ± 0.96 MP/g), middle/lingular (0.41 ± 0.37 MP/g), and with significantly higher levels detected in the lower (3.12 ± 1.30 MP/g) region compared with the upper (p = 0.026) and mid (p = 0.038) lung regions. After subtracting blanks, these levels became 0.23 ± 0.28, 0.33 ± 0.37 and 1.65 ± 0.88 MP/g respectively. The study demonstrates the highest level of contamination control and reports unadjusted values alongside different contamination adjustment techniques. These results support inhalation as a route of exposure for environmental MPs, and this characterisation of types and levels can now inform realistic conditions for laboratory exposure experiments, with the aim of determining health impacts.
126Extraction and quantification of polystyrene nanoplastics from biological samples.PubMed
Pei Li, Caijiao He, Daohui Lin
Environ Pollut. 2022 Dec 1;314:120267. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120267. Epub 2022 Sep 26.
Accurate quantification of nanoplastics (NPs) in complex matrices remains a challenge, especially for biological samples containing high content of organic matters. Herein, a new method extracting and quantifying polystyrene (PS) NPs from biological samples was developed. The extraction included alkaline digestion, centrifugation, and cloud point extraction (CPE), and the quantification included gold nanoparticles formation and labeling on surfaces of the extracted NPs and thereafter measurement with single particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (SP-ICP-MS). Results show that 25% tetramethylammonium hydroxide solution was an effective alkaline digestion solution for biological matrices, and CPE after centrifugation (3000 rpm, 10 min) was applicable to purify and enrich PS NPs with different sizes (100 and 500 nm) and surface functionalities (-COOH and -NH modifications) from the digestion solution. The efficiency of Au labeling on PS NPs surface was improved by about 70% in the presence of 100 μM cetyltrimethylammonium bromide. The performance of the quantification method was examined by extraction and measurement of PS NPs spiked in four representative organism samples including bacteria, algae, nematode, and earthworm, and was further validated by analyzing the accumulated PS NPs in exposed nematodes. Good recovery rates (65 ± 10%-122 ± 22%) were achieved for spiking levels of 5-50 μg g; the limit of detection was 3.7 × 10 particles g, corresponding to the mass concentration of about 0.02 and 2.5 μg g for the 100 nm and 500 nm PS NPs, respectively. The established extraction and quantification methods are efficient and sensitive, providing a useful approach for further exploring the environmental behavior and toxicity of NPs.
127Microplastics and nanoplastics: Exposure and toxicological effects require important analysis considerations.PubMed
Emmanouil D Tsochatzis, Helen Gika, Georgios Theodoridis, et al.
Heliyon. 2024 May 31;10(11):e32261. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e32261. eCollection 2024 Jun 15.
Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) pervade both the environment and the food chain, originating from the degradation of plastic materials from various sources. Their ubiquitous presence raises concerns for ecosystem safety, as well as the health of animals and humans. While evidence suggests their infiltration into mammalian and human tissues and their association with several diseases, the precise toxicological effects remain elusive and require further investigation. MPs and NPs sample preparation and analytical methods are quite scattered without harmonized strategies to exist at the moment. A significant challenge lies in the limited availability of methods for the chemical characterization and quantification of these contaminants. MPs and NPs can undergo further degradation, driven by abiotic or biotic factors, resulting in the formation of cyclic or linear oligomers. These oligomers can serve as indicative markers for the presence or exposure to MPs and NPs. Moreover, recent finding concerning the aggregation of oligomers to form NPs, makes their analysis as markers very important. Recent advancements have led to the development of sensitive and robust analytical methods for identifying and (semi)quantifying these oligomers in environmental, food, and biological samples. These methods offer a valuable complementary approach for determining the presence of MPs and NPs and assessing their risk to human health and the environment.
128Consequences of nano and microplastic exposure in rodent models: the known and unknown.PubMed
Walison Augusto da Silva Brito, Fiona Mutter, Kristian Wende, et al.
Part Fibre Toxicol. 2022 Apr 21;19(1):28. doi: 10.1186/s12989-022-00473-y.
The ubiquitous nature of micro- (MP) and nanoplastics (NP) is a growing environmental concern. However, their potential impact on human health remains unknown. Research increasingly focused on using rodent models to understand the effects of exposure to individual plastic polymers. In vivo data showed critical exposure effects depending on particle size, polymer, shape, charge, concentration, and exposure routes. Those effects included local inflammation, oxidative stress, and metabolic disruption, leading to gastrointestinal toxicity, hepatotoxicity, reproduction disorders, and neurotoxic effects. This review distillates the current knowledge regarding rodent models exposed to MP and NP with different experimental designs assessing biodistribution, bioaccumulation, and biological responses. Rodents exposed to MP and NP showed particle accumulation in several tissues. Critical responses included local inflammation and oxidative stress, leading to microbiota dysbiosis, metabolic, hepatic, and reproductive disorders, and diseases exacerbation. Most studies used MP and NP commercially provided and doses higher than found in environmental exposure. Hence, standardized sampling techniques and improved characterization of environmental MP and NP are needed and may help in toxicity assessments of relevant particle mixtures, filling knowledge gaps in the literature.
129Promising techniques and open challenges for microplastic identification and quantification in environmental matrices.PubMed
Christiane Zarfl
Anal Bioanal Chem. 2019 Jul;411(17):3743-3756. doi: 10.1007/s00216-019-01763-9. Epub 2019 Mar 27.
Microplastics are observed ubiquitously and in different environmental compartments ranging from marine waters and sediments to freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems including biota. Over the last decade, several methods have been applied and advanced to monitor and quantify microplastics, to identify the polymer material and to describe the particle properties, such as size, shape or colour. In most cases, the overarching aim is to elucidate patterns of occurrence that might result from (micro)plastic emissions and environmental fate. But the applied methods are subject to uncertainties and boundary conditions, be it spatial resolution that excludes the smallest microplastics or limitations in distinguishing microplastic particles from natural particles. This critical review provides an overview of the state-of-the-art procedures in microplastic analysis, gives examples of potential ways ahead and remaining challenges and classifies available methods according to the underlying research question. The resulting decision tree for the selection of analytical methods starts with a common research question and takes specificities of the environmental matrix into account. The procedural range consequently ranges from fast screening methods based on visual identification to a highly sophisticated combination of analytical methods that provide information on polymer type, particle number or mass and eventually particle size but are very time-consuming and expensive. Standardization of microplastic analytical methods on the basis of the research aim will help to make study results comparable and obtain a more comprehensive picture of microplastic abundance and fate in the environment. Graphical abstract.
130On the probability of ecological risks from microplastics in the Laurentian Great lakes.PubMed
Albert A Koelmans, Paula E Redondo-Hasselerharm, Nur Hazimah Mohamed Nor, et al.
Environ Pollut. 2023 May 15;325:121445. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121445. Epub 2023 Mar 14.
The Laurentian Great Lakes represent important and iconic ecosystems. Microplastic pollution has become a major problem among other anthropogenic stressors in these lakes. There is a need for policy development, however, assessing the risks of microplastics is complicated due to the uncertainty and poor quality of the data and incompatibility of exposure and effect data for microplastics with different properties. Here we provide a prospective probabilistic risk assessment for Great Lakes sediments and surface waters that corrects for the misalignment between exposure and effect data, accounts for variability due to sample volume when using trawl samples, for the random spatiotemporal variability of exposure data, for uncertainty in data quality (QA/QC), in the slope of the power law used to rescale the data, and in the HC5 threshold effect concentration obtained from Species Sensitivity Distributions (SSDs). We rank the lakes in order of the increasing likelihood of risks from microplastics, for pelagic and benthic exposures. A lake-wide risk, i.e. where each location exceeds the risk limit, is not found for any of the lakes. However, the probability of a risk from food dilution occurring in parts of the lakes is 13-15% of the benthic exposures in Lakes Erie and Huron, and 8.3-10.3% of the pelagic exposures in Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake Superior, and Lake Erie, and 24% of the pelagic exposures in Lake Ontario. To reduce the identified uncertainties, we recommend that future research focuses on characterizing and quantifying environmentally relevant microplastic (ERMP) over a wider size range (ideally 1-5000 μm) so that probability density functions (PDFs) can be better calibrated for different habitats. Toxicity effect testing should use a similarly wide range of sizes and other ERMP characteristics so that complex data alignments can be minimized and assumptions regarding ecologically relevant dose metrics (ERMs) can be validated.
131Is the impact of atmospheric microplastics on human health underestimated? Uncertainty in risk assessment: A case study of urban atmosphere in Xi'an, Northwest China.PubMed
Ze Liu, Qian'en Huang, Long Chen, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2022 Dec 10;851(Pt 2):158167. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158167. Epub 2022 Aug 20.
Microplastic (MP) exposure in the environment has been commonly demonstrated to have adverse effects on human health. The majority of studies on MP were related to the aquatic and terrestrial systems, its potential risk for ecosystem and human health when exposed to the atmosphere is not well-understood. The presented study, taking Xi'an, a megacity in Northwest China, as an example, first estimated the possibility of local residents bearing MPs pollution. The results figured out an average abundance of MPs in TSP, PM, and PM was 12.5, 3.5 and 0.8 particles/L, respectively. A total of 15 polymer types of MPs were identified in the atmosphere. Although a species sensitivity distribution (SSD) approach is acknowledged to be useful to estimate the potential risk of pollutants, the result of SSD when used to evaluate the risk of MPs is debatable. In this study, SSD-based risk assessment showed that the atmospheric MP pollution in Xi'an had not yet reached the level of threatening human. However, unlike chemicals, it is unreliable to assess risk using the relationship of dose-response for MPs because toxic effects of MPs can be influenced by not only the abundance but also the characteristics, e.g., morphological size, shape and oxidative potential. Since insufficient mechanistic understanding regarding the relative relationship between MP characteristics and their toxic effects and limitation of the quality and relevance of toxicity data, the uncertainty of risk assessment of the atmospheric MPs is inevitable and the risk of the atmospheric MPs was tended to be underestimated. This poses a challenge to manufacturers and public health authorities, as well as researchers alike, however, we are already being exposed to the atmospheric MPs.
132Health Implications of Widespread Micro- and Nanoplastic Exposure: Environmental Prevalence, Mechanisms, and Biological Impact on Humans.PubMed
Olivia-Teodora Preda, Ana-Maria Vlasceanu, Cristina Veronica Andreescu, et al.
Toxics. 2024 Oct 10;12(10):730. doi: 10.3390/toxics12100730.
The increasing awareness of the potential health risks associated with microplastics' (MPs) and nanoplastics' (NPs) presence in the environment has led to a significant rise in research focused on these particles over the past few years. This review focuses on the research on MPs'/NPs' presence and spread, pathways of exposure, toxicological effects on human health and legal framework related to MP/NP challenges. Several research projects have aimed to assess their potential harm to human health, focusing on different systems and organs. After exposure (independent of the pathway), these hazards reach the blood stream and concentrate in different organs. Further, they are responsible for harmful changes, having an immediate effect (pain, inflammation, or hormone imbalance) or lead to a long-term disease (e.g., infertility, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or cancer). Toxicological effects have been noticed at high concentrations of MPs, specifically polystyrene, the most widespread typical MP, but only short-term effects have been mostly studied. Significant quantities of consumed MPs have been discovered to have diverse detrimental effects, posing a threat to human welfare. The exact concentrations of microplastics that are inhaled and swallowed and then build up in the human body are still not known. Further investigation is necessary to evaluate the impact of MP/NP contamination at minimal concentrations and for prolonged durations.
133Microplastics in our diet: A growing concern for human health.PubMed
Ramon Bocker, Eric Keven Silva
Sci Total Environ. 2025 Mar 10;968:178882. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2025.178882. Epub 2025 Feb 22.
Microplastics (MPs), particles smaller than 5 mm, are widely distributed in the environment, raising concerns about their long-term human health impact. MPs can enter the human food chain through various sources, including drinking water, salt, plant-based derived products, animal-based derived products (especially seafood), alcoholic beverages, and packaged food. Once in the human body, MPs have been detected in various biological tissues and secretions, such as feces, blood, semen, breastmilk, thrombi, colon, atheroma, and liver, highlighting their capacity for bioaccumulation. The most commonly identified polymers include polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS), along with others such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). This review presents a perspective on underexplored food contamination by MPs, discussing the presence of these plastic fragments in human biological systems and discussing in vivo studies that investigate their potential health risks. Emerging evidence links MPs to inflammatory responses, oxidative stress, and cellular dysfunction, potentially contributing to gastrointestinal disorders, neurotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, and cardiovascular risks. Key knowledge gaps persist for understanding health impacts under environmental relevant conditions, particularly regarding long-term exposure, particle size effects, chemical composition, and interactions with environmental pollutants. Addressing these challenges requires the development of advanced experimental models and human-relevant tissue studies, to improve understanding of MPs bioaccumulation, toxicity, and mechanisms of action. This work underscores the urgency of mitigating MP exposure and advancing studies to better understand their real implications for human health.
134Review of mechanisms and impacts of nanoplastic toxicity in aquatic organisms and potential impacts on human health.PubMed
Rahul Thakur, Vibhor Joshi, Ganesh Chandra Sahoo, et al.
Toxicol Rep. 2025 Mar 28;14:102013. doi: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.102013. eCollection 2025 Jun.
The harmful environmental impact of plastic waste has justifiably received substantial attention from the scientific community. In contrast, the toxicological effects of nanoplastics (NP) on aquatic organisms, as well as the potential implications for human health, remain largely unexplored and poorly understood. Despite the growing awareness of plastic pollution, the risks associated with the ubiquitous presence of nanoplastics in our food and beverages are not yet fully recognized. NPs, which are smaller than 1 µm, along with a mixture of MPs and plastic fragments, can find their way into water bodies through various sources and may easily be taken up by aquatic organisms. This paper summarizes the existing literature on NPs bioavailability, their accumulation patterns within the tissues of fish, shellfish, and zooplankton, as well as the influence of biological and environmental factors on NPs absorption from water and diet. Study indicated that the NPs pose significant risks to both aquatic ecosystems and human health due to their ability to bioaccumulate in marine organisms and biomagnify through the food web. It highlighted that various aquatic species can ingest NPs, leading to their distribution across different tissues, which may result in toxic effects such as oxidative stress, DNA damage, and inflammation, as well as impacts on growth and reproduction. The identified critical gaps in current research, particularly regarding the long-term effects of low-dose NP exposure and the need for standardized testing methodologies to ensure comparability across studies. Furthermore, the necessity for further research to understand the pathways through which humans may be exposed to NPs, their toxicokinetics, and the potential implications for chronic health issues. Therefore, more studies are required which employ rigorous and uniform methodologies to fully address NPs as an emerging threat within aquatic ecosystems and food chains; accurately assess related risks with human health together with cumulative toxicity perhaps when combined with other pollutants.
135Nanoplastics induce epigenetic signatures of transgenerational impairments associated with reproduction in copepods under ocean acidification.PubMed
Young Hwan Lee, Min-Sub Kim, Yoseop Lee, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2023 May 5;449:131037. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131037. Epub 2023 Feb 21.
Ocean acidification (OA) is one of many major global climate changes that pose a variety of risks to marine ecosystems in different ways. Meanwhile, there is growing concern about how nanoplastics (NPs) affect marine ecosystems. Combined exposure of marine organisms to OA and NPs is inevitable, but their interactive effects remain poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the multi- and transgenerational toxicity of NPs on copepods under OA conditions for ten generations. The findings revealed that OA and NPs have a synergistic negative effect on copepod reproduction across generations. In particular, the transgenerational groups showed reproductive impairments in the F1 and F2 generations (F1T and F2T), even though they were never exposed to NPs. Moreover, our epigenetic examinations demonstrated that the observed intergenerational reproductive impairments are associated with differential methylation patterns of specific genes, suggesting that the interaction of OA and NPs can pose a significant threat to the sustainability of copepod populations through epigenetic modifications. Overall, our findings provide valuable insight into the intergenerational toxicity and underlying molecular mechanisms of responses to NPs under OA conditions.
136Microplastic fiber-induced transgenerational epigenetic disruption impairs fitness in Daphnia magna.PubMed
Buom Sup Shim, Hae Min Yoon, Jun-Hyeon An, et al.
Aquat Toxicol. 2025 Dec;289:107579. doi: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2025.107579. Epub 2025 Sep 18.
Microplastic fibers (MPFs) are the most prevalent type of microplastics in freshwater environments. However, although the effects of plastic pollution on various aquatic species have been extensively studied, the underlying mechanisms of the intergenerational effects of MPFs on aquatic organisms remain poorly understood. Here, we investigated the multi- and transgenerational toxicity of MPFs in Daphnia magna over three generations. Our findings revealed that MPFs exposure negatively affects reproduction and molting frequency across generations. Notably, the transgenerational groups exhibited reproductive impairments and reduced molting frequency in the F1 and F2 generations (F1T and F2T), despite never being directly exposed to MPFs. Furthermore, whole-genome bisulfite sequencing revealed that these transgenerational adverse effects are associated with differential DNA methylation patterns in specific genes, suggesting that MPFs may threaten Daphnia populations through epigenetic modifications. Collectively, our findings provide valuable insights into the intergenerational toxicity of MPFs and the underlying molecular mechanisms driving these responses.
137Paternal Inheritance Is an Important, but Overlooked, Factor Affecting the Adverse Effects of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Subsequent Generations.PubMed
Jiaqi Sun, Miaomiao Teng, Wentao Zhu, et al.
J Agric Food Chem. 2023 Jan 18;71(2):991-993. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c08408. Epub 2023 Jan 8.
Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) are widely detected in food and the human environment. More studies have begun to pay attention to the influence of MPs and NPs on genetics; in particular, exposure of paternal generation to MPs and NPs on epigenetic inheritance and the offspring of animal models have attracted considerable interest. In this Viewpoint, we mainly discuss the suggestion that reproductive genetic changes in the male parent have the potential to be transferred to the offspring and illustrate how MPs and NPs in the father tissues are distributed in later generations. We provide a systematic understanding of the potential health hazards of paternal exposure to MPs and NPs to subsequent generations and put forth recommendations about the epigenetic effects for future research on public health and food safety.
138The potential impacts of micro-and-nano plastics on various organ systems in humans.PubMed
Nurshad Ali, Jenny Katsouli, Emma L Marczylo, et al.
EBioMedicine. 2024 Jan;99:104901. doi: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2023.104901. Epub 2023 Dec 6.
Humans are exposed to micro-and-nano plastics (MNPs) through various routes, but the adverse health effects of MNPs on different organ systems are not yet fully understood. This review aims to provide an overview of the potential impacts of MNPs on various organ systems and identify knowledge gaps in current research. The summarized results suggest that exposure to MNPs can lead to health effects through oxidative stress, inflammation, immune dysfunction, altered biochemical and energy metabolism, impaired cell proliferation, disrupted microbial metabolic pathways, abnormal organ development, and carcinogenicity. There is limited human data on the health effects of MNPs, despite evidence from animal and cellular studies. Most of the published research has focused on specific types of MNPs to assess their toxicity, while other types of plastic particles commonly found in the environment remain unstudied. Future studies should investigate MNPs exposure by considering realistic concentrations, dose-dependent effects, individual susceptibility, and confounding factors.
139Recent progress and future directions of the research on nanoplastic-induced neurotoxicity.PubMed
Seung-Woo Han, Jinhee Choi, Kwon-Yul Ryu
Neural Regen Res. 2024 Feb;19(2):331-335. doi: 10.4103/1673-5374.379016.
Many types of plastic products, including polystyrene, have long been used in commercial and industrial applications. Microplastics and nanoplastics, plastic particles derived from these plastic products, are emerging as environmental pollutants that can pose health risks to a wide variety of living organisms, including humans. However, it is not well understood how microplastics and nanoplastics affect cellular functions and induce stress responses. Humans can be exposed to polystyrene-microplastics and polystyrene-nanoplastics through ingestion, inhalation, or skin contact. Most ingested plastics are excreted from the body, but inhaled plastics may accumulate in the lungs and can even reach the brain via the nose-to-brain route. Small-sized polystyrene-nanoplastics can enter cells by endocytosis, accumulate in the cytoplasm, and cause various cellular stresses, such as inflammation with increased pro-inflammatory cytokine production, oxidative stress with generation of reactive oxygen species, and mitochondrial dysfunction. They induce autophagy activation and autophagosome formation, but autophagic flux may be impaired due to lysosomal dysfunction. Unless permanently exposed to polystyrene-nanoplastics, they can be removed from cells by exocytosis and subsequently restore cellular function. However, neurons are very susceptible to this type of stress, thus even acute exposure can lead to neurodegeneration without recovery. This review focuses specifically on recent advances in research on polystyrene-nanoplastic-induced cytotoxicity and neurotoxicity. Furthermore, in this review, based on mechanistic studies of polystyrene-nanoplastics at the cellular level other than neurons, future directions for overcoming the negative effects of polystyrene-nanoplastics on neurons were suggested.
140Unveiling the toxicity of micro-nanoplastics: A systematic exploration of understanding environmental and health implications.PubMed
Saurabh Shukla, Sakshum Khanna, Kushagra Khanna
Toxicol Rep. 2024 Dec 12;14:101844. doi: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2024.101844. eCollection 2025 Jun.
The surge in plastic production has spurred a global crisis as plastic pollution intensifies, with microplastics and nanoplastics emerging as notable environmental threats. Due to their miniature size, these particles are ubiquitous across ecosystems and pose severe hazards as they are ingested and bioaccumulate within organisms. Although global plastic production has reached an alarming 400.3 MTs, recycling efforts remain limited, with only 18.5 MTs being recycled. Currently, out of the total plastic waste, 49.6 % is converted into energy, 27 % is recycled, and 23.5 % is recovered as material, indicating a need for better waste management practices to combat the escalating pollution levels. Research studies on micro-nanoplastics have primarily concentrated on their environmental presence and laboratory-based toxicity studies. This review critically examines the sources and detection methods for micro-nanoplastics, emphasising their toxicological effects and ecological impacts. Organisms like zebrafish and rats serve as key models for studying these particle's bioaccumulative potential, showcasing adverse effects that extend to DNA damage, oxidative stress, and cellular apoptosis. Studies reveal that micro-nanoplastics can permeate biological barriers, including the blood-brain barrier, neurological imbalance, cardiac, respiratory, and dermatological disorders. These health risks, particularly relevant for humans, underscore the urgency for broader, real-world studies beyond controlled laboratory conditions. Additionally, the review discusses innovative energy-harvesting technologies as sustainable alternatives for plastic waste utilisation, particularly valuable for energy-deficient regions. These strategies aim to simultaneously address energy demands and mitigate plastic waste. This approach aligns with global sustainability goals, providing a promising avenue for both pollution reduction and energy generation. The review calls for further research to enhance detection techniques, assess long-term environmental impacts, and explore sustainable solutions that integrate energy recovery with pollution mitigation, especially in regions most affected by both energy shortages and increased plastic waste.
141Neurotoxicities induced by micro/nanoplastics: A review focusing on the risks of neurological diseases.PubMed
Shuang Liu, Yinling He, Jia Yin, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2024 May 5;469:134054. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134054. Epub 2024 Mar 15.
Pollution of micro/nano-plastics (MPs/NPs) is ubiquitously prevalent in the environment, leading to an unavoidable exposure of the human body. Despite the protection of the blood-brain barrier, MPs/NPs can be transferred and accumulated in the brain, which subsequently exert negative effects on the brain. Nevertheless, the potential neurodevelopmental and/or neurodegenerative risks of MPs/NPs remain largely unexplored. In this review, we provide a systematic overview of recent studies related to the neurotoxicity of MPs/NPs. It covers the environmental hazards and human exposure pathways, translocation and distribution into the brain, the neurotoxic effects, and the possible mechanisms of environmental MPs/NPs. MPs/NPs are widely found in different environment matrices, including air, water, soil, and human food. Ambient MPs/NPs can enter the human body by ingestion, inhalation and dermal contact, then be transferred into the brain via the blood circulation and nerve pathways. When MPs/NPs are present in the brain, they can initiate a series of molecular or cellular reactions that may harm the blood-brain barrier, cause oxidative stress, trigger inflammatory responses, affect acetylcholinesterase activity, lead to mitochondrial dysfunction, and impair autophagy. This can result in abnormal protein folding, loss of neurons, disruptions in neurotransmitters, and unusual behaviours, ultimately contributing to the initiation and progression of neurodegenerative changes and neurodevelopmental abnormalities. Key challenges and further research directions are also proposed in this review as more studies are needed to focus on the potential neurotoxicity of MPs/NPs under realistic conditions.
142Analysis of Biodistribution and in vivo Toxicity of Varying Sized Polystyrene Micro and Nanoplastics in Mice.PubMed
Bohai Du, Tianlan Li, Haoqi He, et al.
Int J Nanomedicine. 2024 Jul 26;19:7617-7630. doi: 10.2147/IJN.S466258. eCollection 2024.
INTRODUCTION: Studies have shown that microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) could accumulate in the human body and pose a potential threat to human health. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the biodistribution and toxicity of MPs/NPs with different particle sizes comprehensively and thoroughly. METHODS: The purpose of this study was to investigate the biodistribution and in vivo toxicity of polystyrene (PS) MPs/NPs with different sizes (50 nm, 100 nm, and 500 nm). The BALB/c mice were given 100 μL of PS50, PS100 and PS500 at the dosage of 1 mg/kg BW or 10 mg/kg BW, respectively, by gavage once a day. After 28 consecutive days of treatment, the biodistribution of differently sized PS MPs/NPs was determined through cryosection fluorescence microscopy and fluorescent microplate reader analysis, and the subsequent effects of differently sized PS MPs/NPs on histopathology, hematology and blood biochemistry were also evaluated. RESULTS: The results showed that the three different sizes of PS MPs/NPs were distributed in the organs of mice, mainly in the liver, spleen, and intestine. At the same time, the smaller the particle size, the more they accumulate in the body and more easily penetrate the tissue. During the whole observation period, no abnormal behavior and weight change were observed. The results of H&E staining showed that no severe histopathological abnormalities were observed in the main organs in the low-dose exposure group, while. Exposure of three sizes of PS MPs/NPs could cause some changes in hematological parameters or biochemical parameters related to heart, liver, and kidney function; meanwhile, there were size- and dose-dependencies. CONCLUSION: The biological distribution and toxicity of plastic particles in mice were more obvious with the decrease of particle size and the increase of concentration of plastic particles. Compared with MPs, NPs were easier to enter the tissues and produce changes in liver, kidney, and heart functions. Therefore, more attention should be paid to the toxicity of NPs.
143From insects to mammals! Tissue accumulation and transgenerational transfer of micro/nano-plastics through the food chain.PubMed
Yijing Wang, Xinrui Nan, Huayang Sun, et al.
J Hazard Mater. 2024 Dec 5;480:136424. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.136424. Epub 2024 Nov 8.
Despite extensive global attention on microplastic pollution, our understanding of the pathways underlying microplastic translocation, accumulation, and their potential impacts on ecosystems and human health through the food chain remains incomplete. To investigate the translocation and accumulation of microplastics from insects to mammals, we developed a novel oral exposure model that Tenebrio molitor larvae (yellow mealworms, invertebrate terrestrial insects) were firstly orally exposed to both micro and nanometer-sized plastics (M/NPs), and subsequently fed as a food source to mice (mammals). Our results provide clear evidence that micro/nanoplastics (M/NPs) do indeed translocate through the food chain, from lower to higher trophic levels. Fluorescence microscopy and tissue quantification revealed the accumulation of M/NPs in the digestive, somatic, and circulatory systems of the larvae. Specifically, the food chain transferred M/NPs were later detected in the digestive, respiratory, and urinary systems of mice, showcasing strong fluorescent signals in vital organs such as the lungs, liver, intestines, brain, and kidneys, as well as in embryos. These findings highlight the intricate dynamics of M/NPs contamination, emphasizing their ability to traverse biological barriers, accumulate in organisms, and potentially impact embryonic development via food chain transfer.
144Exposure to different surface-modified polystyrene nanoparticles caused anxiety, depression, and social deficit in mice via damaging mitochondria in neurons.PubMed
Yuhan Ma, Dihui Xu, Zicheng Wan, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2024 Apr 1;919:170739. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170739. Epub 2024 Feb 9.
Nanoplastics (NPs) are unavoidable hazardous materials that result from the human production and use of plastics. While there is evidence that NPs can bioaccumulate in the brain, no enough research regarding the pathways by which NPs reach the brain was conducted, and it is also urgently needed to evaluate the health threat to the nervous system. Here, we observed accumulation of polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) with different surface modifications (PS, PS-COOH, and PS-NH) in mouse brains. Further studies showed that PS-NPs disrupted the tight junctions between endothelial cells and transport into endothelial cells via the endocytosis and macropinocytosis pathways. Additionally, NPs exposure induced a series of alternations in behavioral tests, including anxiety- and depression-like changes and impaired social interaction performance. Further results identified that NPs could be internalized into neurons and localized in the mitochondria, bringing about mitochondrial dysfunction and a concurrent decline of ATP production, which might be associated with abnormal animal behaviors. The findings provide novel insights into the neurotoxicity of NPs and provide a basis for the formulation of policy on plastic production and usage by relevant government agencies.
145Embryonic exposure of polystyrene nanoplastics affects cardiac development.PubMed
Jingyan Li, Huimin Weng, Shuang Liu, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2024 Jan 1;906:167406. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167406. Epub 2023 Sep 27.
Micro- and nanoplastics have recently been detected in human blood and placentas, indicating inevitable embryonic exposure to these particles. However, their influence on human embryogenesis and the underlying mechanisms are still unknown. In this study, the effects of polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs) exposure on cardiac differentiation of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) were evaluated. Uptake of PS-NPs not only caused cellular injury, but also regulated cardiac-related pathways as revealed by RNA-sequencing. Consequently, the efficiency of cardiomyocyte differentiation from hESCs was compromised, leading to immature of cardiomyocytes and smaller cardiac organoids with impaired contractility. Mechanistically, PS-NPs promoted mitochondrial oxidative stress, activated P38/Erk MAPK signaling pathway, blocked autophagy flux, and eventually reduced the pluripotency of hESCs. Consistently, in vivo exposure of PS-NPs from cleavage to gastrula period of zebrafish embryo led to reduced cardiac contraction and blood flow. Collectively, this study suggests that PS-NPs is a risk factor for fetal health, especially for heart development.
146Molecular and Cellular Effects of Microplastics and Nanoplastics: Focus on Inflammation and Senescence.PubMed
Faiza Mahmud, Drishty B Sarker, Jonathan A Jocelyn, et al.
Cells. 2024 Oct 29;13(21):1788. doi: 10.3390/cells13211788.
Microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) are ubiquitous environmental contaminants. Their prevalence, persistence, and increasing industrial production have led to questions about their long-term impact on human and animal health. This narrative review describes the effects of MNPs on oxidative stress, inflammation, and aging. Exposure to MNPs leads to increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) across multiple experimental models, including cell lines, organoids, and animal systems. ROS can cause damage to cellular macromolecules such as DNA, proteins, and lipids. Direct interaction between MNPs and immune cells or an indirect result of oxidative stress-mediated cellular damage may lead to increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines throughout different MNP-exposure conditions. This inflammatory response is a common feature in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative, cardiovascular, and other age-related diseases. MNPs also act as cell senescence inducers by promoting mitochondrial dysfunction, impairing autophagy, and activating DNA damage responses, exacerbating cellular aging altogether. Increased senescence of reproductive cells and transfer of MNPs/induced damages from parents to offspring in animals further corroborates the transgenerational health risks of the tiny particles. This review aims to provoke a deeper investigation into the notorious effects these pervasive particles may have on human well-being and longevity.
147Polystyrene nanoplastic exposure induces excessive mitophagy by activating AMPK/ULK1 pathway in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells and dopaminergic neurons in vivo.PubMed
Yuji Huang, Boxuan Liang, Zhiming Li, et al.
Part Fibre Toxicol. 2023 Nov 22;20(1):44. doi: 10.1186/s12989-023-00556-4.
BACKGROUND: Microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) are emerging environmental contaminants detected in human samples, and have raised concerns regarding their potential risks to human health, particularly neurotoxicity. This study aimed to investigate the deleterious effects of polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs, 50 nm) and understand their mechanisms in inducing Parkinson's disease (PD)-like neurodegeneration, along with exploring preventive strategies. METHODS: Following exposure to PS-NPs (0.5-500 μg/mL), we assessed cytotoxicity, mitochondrial integrity, ATP levels, and mitochondrial respiration in dopaminergic-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells. Molecular docking and dynamic simulations explored PS-NPs' interactions with mitochondrial complexes. We further probed mitophagy's pivotal role in PS-NP-induced mitochondrial damage and examined melatonin's ameliorative potential in vitro. We validated melatonin's intervention (intraperitoneal, 10 mg/kg/d) in C57BL/6 J mice exposed to 250 mg/kg/d of PS-NPs for 28 days. RESULTS: In our in vitro experiments, we observed PS-NP accumulation in cells, including mitochondria, leading to cell toxicity and reduced viability. Notably, antioxidant treatment failed to fully rescue viability, suggesting reactive oxygen species (ROS)-independent cytotoxicity. PS-NPs caused significant mitochondrial damage, characterized by altered morphology, reduced mitochondrial membrane potential, and decreased ATP production. Subsequent investigations pointed to PS-NP-induced disruption of mitochondrial respiration, potentially through interference with complex I (CI), a concept supported by molecular docking studies highlighting the influence of PS-NPs on CI. Rescue experiments using an AMPK pathway inhibitor (compound C) and an autophagy inhibitor (3-methyladenine) revealed that excessive mitophagy was induced through AMPK/ULK1 pathway activation, worsening mitochondrial damage and subsequent cell death in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells. Notably, we identified melatonin as a potential protective agent, capable of alleviating PS-NP-induced mitochondrial dysfunction. Lastly, our in vivo experiments demonstrated that melatonin could mitigate dopaminergic neuron loss and motor impairments by restoring mitophagy regulation in mice. CONCLUSIONS: Our study demonstrated that PS-NPs disrupt mitochondrial function by affecting CI, leading to excessive mitophagy through the AMPK/ULK1 pathway, causing dopaminergic neuron death. Melatonin can counteract PS-NP-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and motor impairments by regulating mitochondrial autophagy. These findings offer novel insights into the MNP-induced PD-like neurodegenerative mechanisms, and highlight melatonin's protective potential in mitigating the MNP's environmental risk.
148Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) and their potential toxicological outcomes: State of science, knowledge gaps and research needs.PubMed
Zhenning Yang, Glen M DeLoid, Helmut Zarbl, et al.
NanoImpact. 2023 Oct;32:100481. doi: 10.1016/j.impact.2023.100481. Epub 2023 Sep 16.
Plastic waste has been produced at a rapidly growing rate over the past several decades. The environmental impacts of plastic waste on marine and terrestrial ecosystems have been recognized for years. Recently, researchers found that micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs), micron (100 nm - 5 mm) and nanometer (1 - 100 nm) scale particles and fibers produced by degradation and fragmentation of plastic waste in the environment, have become an important emerging environmental and food chain contaminant with uncertain consequences for human health. This review provides a comprehensive summary of recent findings from studies of potential toxicity and adverse health impacts of MNPs in terrestrial mammals, including studies in both in vitro cellular and in vivo mammalian models. Also reviewed here are recently released biomonitoring studies that have characterized the bioaccumulation, biodistribution, and excretion of MNPs in humans. The majority MNPs in the environment to which humans are most likely to be exposed, are of irregular shapes, varied sizes, and mixed compositions, and are defined as secondary MNPs. However, the MNPs used in most toxicity studies to date were commercially available primary MNPs of polystyrene (PS), polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and other polymers. The emerging in vitro and in vivo evidence reviewed here suggests that MNP toxicity and bioactivity are largely determined by MNP particle physico-chemical characteristics, including size, shape, polymer type, and surface properties. For human exposure, MNPs have been identified in human blood, urine, feces, and placenta, which pose potential health risks. The evidence to date suggests that the mechanisms underlying MNP toxicity at the cellular level are primarily driven by oxidative stress. Nonetheless, large knowledge gaps in our understanding of MNP toxicity and the potential health impacts of MNP exposures still exist and much further study is needed to bridge those gaps. This includes human population exposure studies to determine the environmentally relevant MNP polymers and exposure concentrations and durations for toxicity studies, as well as toxicity studies employing environmentally relevant MNPs, with surface chemistries and other physico-chemical properties consistent with MNP particles in the environment. It is especially important to obtain comprehensive toxicological data for these MNPs to understand the range and extent of potential adverse impacts of microplastic pollutants on humans and other organisms.
149Solutions and Integrated Strategies for the Control and Mitigation of Plastic and Microplastic Pollution.PubMed
Joana C Prata, Ana L Patrício Silva, João P da Costa, et al.
Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019 Jul 7;16(13):2411. doi: 10.3390/ijerph16132411.
Plastic pollution is generated by the unsustainable use and disposal of plastic products in modern society, threatening economies, ecosystems, and human health. Current clean-up strategies have attempted to mitigate the negative effects of plastic pollution but are unable to compete with increasing quantities of plastic entering the environment. Thus, reducing inputs of plastic to the environment must be prioritized through a global multidisciplinary approach. Mismanaged waste is a major land-based source of plastic pollution that can be reduced through improvements in the life-cycle of plastics, especially in production, consumption, and disposal, through an Integrated Waste Management System. In this review paper, we discuss current practices to improve life cycle and waste management of plastics that can be implemented to reduce health and environmental impacts of plastics and reduce plastics pollution. Ten recommendations for stakeholders to reduce plastic pollution include (1) regulation of production and consumption; (2) eco-design; (3) increasing the demand for recycled plastics; (4) reducing the use of plastics; (5) use of renewable energy for recycling; (6) extended producer responsibility over waste; (7) improvements in waste collection systems; (8) prioritization of recycling; (9) use of bio-based and biodegradable plastics; and (10) improvement in recyclability of e-waste.
150A review of the cost and effectiveness of solutions to address plastic pollution.PubMed
Josiane Nikiema, Zipporah Asiedu
Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2022 Apr;29(17):24547-24573. doi: 10.1007/s11356-021-18038-5. Epub 2022 Jan 23.
Plastic usage increases year by year, and the growing trend is projected to continue. However as of 2017, only 9% of the 9 billion tons of plastic ever produced had been recycled leaving large amounts of plastics to contaminate the environment, resulting in important negative health and economic impacts. Curbing this trend is a major challenge that requires urgent and multifaceted action. Based on scientific and gray literature mainly published during the last 10 years, this review summarizes key solutions currently in use globally that have the potential to address at scale the plastic and microplastic contaminations from source to sea. They include technologies to control plastics in solid wastes (i.e. mechanical and chemical plastic recycling or incineration), in-stream (i.e. booms and clean-up boats, trash racks, and sea bins), and microplastics (i.e. stormwater, municipal wastewater and drinking water treatment), as well as general policy measures (i.e. measures to support the informal sector, bans, enforcement of levies, voluntary measures, extended producer responsibility, measures to enhance recycling and guidelines, standards and protocols to guide activities and interventions) to reduce use, reuse, and recycle plastics and microplastics in support of the technological options. The review discusses the effectiveness, capital expenditure, and operation and maintenance costs of the different technologies, the cost of implementation of policy measures, and the suitability of each solution under various conditions. This guidance is expected to help policymakers and practitioners address, in a sustainable and cost-efficient way, the plastic and microplastic management problem using technologies and policy instruments suitable in their local context.
151Plastics in the time of COVID-19 pandemic: Protector or polluter?PubMed
Neha Parashar, Subrata Hait
Sci Total Environ. 2021 Mar 10;759:144274. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144274. Epub 2020 Dec 10.
The COVID-19 pandemic has reemphasized the indispensable role of plastics in our daily life. Plastics in terms of personal protective equipment (PPEs) and other single-use medical equipment along with packaging solutions owing to their inherent properties have emerged as a life-savior for protecting the health and safety of the frontline health workers and the common citizens during the pandemic. However, plastics have been deemed as evil polluter due to their indiscriminate littering and mismanagement amid increased plastic usage and waste generation during this unprecedented crisis. This article reviews and assesses to dwell upon whether plastics in the time of pandemic are acting as protector of the public health or polluter of the environment. Considering the utilities and limitations of plastic along with its management or mismanagement, and the fate, an equitable appraisal suggests that the consumers' irresponsible behavior, and attitude and poor awareness, and the stress on waste management infrastructure in terms of collection, operation, and financial constraints as the major drivers, leading to mismanagement, turn plastic into an evil polluter of the environment. Plastic can be a protector if managed properly and complemented by the circular economy strategies in terms of reduction, recycle and recovery, and thereby preventing leakage into the environment. To safeguard the supply chain of PPEs, several decontamination techniques have been adopted worldwide ensuring their effective reprocessing to prioritize the circular economy within the system. Policy guidelines encouraging to adopt safer practices and sustainable technical solutions along with consumers' education for awareness creation are the need of the hour for preventing plastic to turn from protector with high utility to polluter.
152Challenges and strategies for effective plastic waste management during and post COVID-19 pandemic.PubMed
Kumar Raja Vanapalli, Hari Bhakta Sharma, Ved Prakash Ranjan, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2021 Jan 1;750:141514. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141514. Epub 2020 Aug 4.
The advent of the COVID-19 pandemic has enhanced the complexities of plastic waste management. Our improved, hyper-hygienic way of life in the fear of transmission has conveniently shifted our behavioral patterns like the use of PPE (Personal protective equipment), increased demand for plastic-packaged food and groceries, and the use of disposable utensils. The inadequacies and inefficiencies of our current waste management system to deal with the increased dependence on plastic could aggravate its mismanagement and leakage into the environment, thus triggering a new environmental crisis. Mandating scientific sterilization and the use of sealed bags for safe disposal of contaminated plastic wastes should be an immediate priority to reduce the risk of transmission to sanitation workers. Investments in circular technologies like feedstock recycling, improving the infrastructure and environmental viability of existing techniques could be the key to dealing with the plastic waste fluxes during such a crisis. Transition towards environmentally friendly materials like bioplastics and harboring new sustainable technologies would be crucial to fighting future pandemics. Although the rollbacks and relaxation of single-use plastic bans may be temporary, their likely implications on the consumer perception could hinder our long-term goals of transitioning towards a circular economy. Likewise, any delay in building international willingness and participation to curb any form of pollution through summits and agendas may also delay its implementation. Reduction in plastic pollution and at the same time promoting sustainable plastic waste management technologies can be achieved by prioritizing our policies to instill individual behavioral as well as social, institutional changes. Incentivizing measures that encourage circularity and sustainable practices, and public-private investments in research, infrastructure and marketing would help in bringing the aforementioned changes. Individual responsibility, corporate action, and government policy are all necessary to keep us from transitioning from one disaster to another.
153Bioplastic production in terms of life cycle assessment: A state-of-the-art review.PubMed
Sameh Samir Ali, Esraa A Abdelkarim, Tamer Elsamahy, et al.
Environ Sci Ecotechnol. 2023 Feb 19;15:100254. doi: 10.1016/j.ese.2023.100254. eCollection 2023 Jul.
The current transition to sustainability and the circular economy can be viewed as a socio-technical response to environmental impacts and the need to enhance the overall performance of the linear production and consumption paradigm. The concept of biowaste refineries as a feasible alternative to petroleum refineries has gained popularity. Biowaste has become an important raw material source for developing bioproducts and biofuels. Therefore, effective environmental biowaste management systems for the production of bioproducts and biofuels are crucial and can be employed as pillars of a circular economy. Bioplastics, typically plastics manufactured from bio-based polymers, stand to contribute to more sustainable commercial plastic life cycles as part of a circular economy in which virgin polymers are made from renewable or recycled raw materials. Various frameworks and strategies are utilized to model and illustrate additional patterns in fossil fuel and bioplastic feedstock prices for various governments' long-term policies. This review paper highlights the harmful impacts of fossil-based plastic on the environment and human health, as well as the mass need for eco-friendly alternatives such as biodegradable bioplastics. Utilizing new types of bioplastics derived from renewable resources (e.g., biowastes, agricultural wastes, or microalgae) and choosing the appropriate end-of-life option (e.g., anaerobic digestion) may be the right direction to ensure the sustainability of bioplastic production. Clear regulation and financial incentives are still required to scale from niche polymers to large-scale bioplastic market applications with a truly sustainable impact.
154Biodegradable Plastics: Standards, Policies, and Impacts.PubMed
Layla Filiciotto, Gadi Rothenberg
ChemSusChem. 2021 Jan 7;14(1):56-72. doi: 10.1002/cssc.202002044. Epub 2020 Oct 28.
Plastics are ubiquitous in our society. They are in our phones, clothes, bottles, and cars. Yet having improved our lives considerably, they now threaten our environment and our health. The associated carbon emissions and persistency of plastics challenge the fragile balance of many ecosystems. One solution is using biodegradable plastics. Ideally, such plastics are easily assimilated by microorganisms and disappear from our environment. This can help reduce the problems of climate change, microplastics, and littering. However, biodegradable plastics are still only a tiny portion of the global plastics market and require further efforts in research and commercialization. Here, a critical overview of the state of the art of biodegradable plastics is given. Using a material flow analysis, the challenges of the plastic market are highlighted, and with it the large market potential of biodegradable plastics. The environmental and socio-economic impact of plastics, government policies, standards and certifications, physico-chemical properties, and analytical techniques are covered. The Review concludes with a personal outlook on the future of bioplastics, based on our own experience with their development and commercialization.
155Comprehensive analysis of bioplastics: life cycle assessment, waste management, biodiversity impact, and sustainable mitigation strategies.PubMed
Kushi Yadav, Ganesh Chandrakant Nikalje
PeerJ. 2024 Sep 11;12:e18013. doi: 10.7717/peerj.18013. eCollection 2024.
Bioplastics are emerging as a promising alternative to traditional plastics, driven by the need for more sustainable options. This review article offers an in-depth analysis of the entire life cycle of bioplastics, from raw material cultivation to manufacturing and disposal, with a focus on environmental impacts at each stage. It emphasizes the significance of adopting sustainable agricultural practices and selecting appropriate feedstock to improve environmental outcomes. The review highlights the detrimental effects of unsustainable farming methods, such as pesticide use and deforestation, which can lead to soil erosion, water pollution, habitat destruction, and increased greenhouse gas emissions. To address these challenges, the article advocates for the use of efficient extraction techniques and renewable energy sources, prioritizing environmental considerations throughout the production process. Furthermore, the methods for reducing energy consumption, water usage, and chemical inputs during manufacturing by implementing eco-friendly technologies. It stresses the importance of developing robust disposal systems for biodegradable materials and supports recycling initiatives to minimize the need for new resources. The holistic approach to sustainability, including responsible feedstock cultivation, efficient production practices, and effective end-of-life management. It underscores the need to evaluate the potential of bioplastics to reduce plastic pollution, considering technological advancements, infrastructure development, and increased consumer awareness. Future research should focus on enhancing production sustainability, understanding long-term ecological impacts, and advancing bioplastics technology for better performance and environmental compatibility. This comprehensive analysis of bioplastics' ecological footprint highlights the urgent need for sustainable solutions in plastic production.
156Biodegradable plastics: mechanisms of degradation and generated bio microplastic impact on soil health.PubMed
Rishpreet Kaur, Indu Chauhan
Biodegradation. 2024 Oct;35(6):863-892. doi: 10.1007/s10532-024-10092-3. Epub 2024 Jul 10.
Conventional petroleum-derived polymers are valued for their versatility and are widely used, owing to their characteristics such as cost-effectiveness, diverse physical and chemical qualities, lower molecular weight, and easy processability for large-scale production. However, the extensive accumulation of such plastics leads to serious environmental issues. To combat this existing situation, an alternative lies in the production of bioplastics from natural and renewable sources such as plants, animals, microbes, etc. Bioplastics obtained from renewable sources are compostable and susceptible to degradation caused by microbes hydrolyzing to CO, CH and biomass. Also, certain additives are reinforced into the bioplastic films to improve their physicochemical properties and degradation rate. However, on degradation, the bio-microplastic (BM) produced could have positive as well as negative impact on the soil health. This article thus focuses on the degradation of various fossil based as well as bio based biodegradable plastics such as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB), polylactic acid (PLA), polybutylene succinate (PBS), polycaprolactone (PCL), and polysaccharide derived bioplastics by mechanical, thermal, photodegradation and microbial approaches. The degradation mechanism of each approach has been discussed in detailed for different bioplastics. How the incorporation or reinforcement of various additives in the biodegradable plastics effects their degradation rates has also been discussed. In addition to that, the impact of generated bio-microplastic on physicochemical properties of soil such as pH, bulk density, carbon, nitrogen content etc. and biological properties such as on genome of native soil microbes and on plant nutritional health have been discussed in detailed.
157Environmental and economic assessment of biodegradable and compostable alternatives for plastic materials in greenhouses.PubMed
Jacob Thrän, Guillermo Garcia-Garcia, Carlos Parra-López, et al.
Waste Manag. 2024 Mar 1;175:92-100. doi: 10.1016/j.wasman.2023.12.049. Epub 2024 Jan 8.
Plastics and other materials commonly used in horticulture for plant support (e.g. raffia) and soil protection (e.g. mulching film) pose a challenge to achieving a circular economy. These materials contaminate plant residues, hampering their direct reuse due to the need for separation and cleaning. As a result, contaminated plant residues is often landfilled or incinerated. This study investigates the replacement of conventional plastic raffia and mulching film with biodegradable and compostable alternatives. Polypropylene raffia is compared with a biodegradable viscose polymer and compostable jute fibre, while polyethylene mulching film is compared with a biodegradable polylactic acid film. Conventional and novel alternatives are compared economically using Life-Cycle Costing and environmentally using Life-Cycle Assessment. The economic assessment is based on case studies with two horticultural companies in Almeria (south-eastern Spain), while the environmental analysis uses data from the Ecoinvent database. The use of biodegradable and compostable alternatives for raffia and mulching film proved to be 49% more expensive than conventional options. However, when conventional plastic waste is incinerated rather than landfilled, biodegradable and compostable alternatives have a lower carbon footprint. Although biodegradable and compostable options can be more expensive and have higher impacts in certain situations, proper waste management can lead to environmental benefits. With optimisation and incentives, these alternative options support the transition of horticulture to a sustainable circular economy.
158Differences in the Plastispheres of Biodegradable and Non-biodegradable Plastics: A Mini Review.PubMed
Chu Peng, Jiao Wang, Xianhua Liu, et al.
Front Microbiol. 2022 Apr 25;13:849147. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.849147. eCollection 2022.
There has been a steady rise in the production and disposal of biodegradable plastics. Unlike the microorganisms present in the biofilms on non-biodegradable plastic surfaces (the "plastisphere"), the plastisphere of biodegradable plastic has not been well-characterized. As the polymer structure of biodegradable plastic has a higher microbial affinity than that of non-biodegradable plastic, their plastispheres are assumed to be different. This review summarizes the reported differences in microbial communities on the surface of biodegradable and non-biodegradable plastics, discusses the driving forces behind these differences, and discusses the potential environmental risks. Overall, the plastisphere biomass on the surface of non-biodegradable plastic was observed to be lower than that of biodegradable plastic. The community structure of microbes in both plastispheres was diverse, mainly due to the properties of the plastic surface, such as surface charge, hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity, roughness, and bioavailability of polymer components for microbes. Further research should focus on developing biodegradable plastic that degrade faster in the environment, revealing the mechanism of enrichment of ARGs and potential pathogens on plastics, and understanding the potential influence of plastispheres on the evolution and selection of plastic-degrading microbial potential.
159Exploring Environmental Behaviors and Health Impacts of Biodegradable Microplastics.PubMed
Yuhao Yan, Jiexia Cheng, Jie Gao, et al.
Environ Sci Technol. 2025 Apr 1;59(12):5897-5912. doi: 10.1021/acs.est.4c14716. Epub 2025 Mar 21.
Biodegradable plastics (BPs) are promoted as eco-friendly alternatives to conventional plastics. However, compared to conventional microplastics (MPs), they degrade rapidly into biodegradable microplastics (BMPs), which may lead to a more significant accumulation of BMPs in the environment. This review systematically compares BMPs and MPs, summarizes current knowledge on their environmental behaviors and impacts on ecosystems and human health, and offers recommendations for future research. BMPs are detected in water, sediments, indoor dust, food, marine organisms, and human samples. Compared to MPs, BMPs are more prone to environmental transformations, such as photodegradation and biodegradation, which results in a shorter migration distance across different matrices. Like MPs, BMPs can adsorb pollutants and transport them into organisms, enhancing toxicity and health risks through the Trojan horse effect. Studies indicate that BMPs may negatively impact terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems more than MPs by disrupting nutrient cycling and inhibiting plant and animal growth. and research also shows that BMP degradation products increase bioavailability, exacerbating neurotoxicity and overall toxicity. However, findings on BMPs' environmental and health effects remain inconsistent. Further evaluation of the trade-offs between BMP risks and their biodegradability is needed to address these uncertainties.
160Containerless Bioorganic Reactions in a Floating Droplet by Levitation Technique Using an Ultrasonic Wave.PubMed
Teruhiko Matsubara, Kenjiro Takemura
Adv Sci (Weinh). 2020 Dec 16;8(3):2002780. doi: 10.1002/advs.202002780. eCollection 2021 Feb.
To ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns, alternative process design without plastics for chemical and biological reactions will benefit future generations. Reaction flasks used in chemical and biological laboratories have been made from glass, metals, and plastics so far. If containerless processing can be realized, researchers will have a next-generation reaction process, which will be reactor and plastic-free, and without risks of unforeseen issues induced by contact with reactions flasks, including contamination and alteration of the reactants. Here, polymerization, click chemistry, and enzymatic reactions can proceed effectively in a floating droplet at a node of standing wave generated by ultrasonic levitation. These results demonstrate that floating droplets levitated by acoustic waves can represent a revolutionary containerless reactor for performing various reactions in the fields of chemistry and biology.
161Application of Plastic Wastes in Construction Materials: A Review Using the Concept of Life-Cycle Assessment in the Context of Recent Research for Future Perspectives.PubMed
Tulane Rodrigues da Silva, Afonso Rangel Garcez de Azevedo, Daiane Cecchin, et al.
Materials (Basel). 2021 Jun 25;14(13):3549. doi: 10.3390/ma14133549.
The urbanization process contributes to the growth of solid waste generation and causes an increase in environmental impacts and failures in the management of solid waste. The number of dumps is a concern due to the limited implementation and safe disposal of this waste. The interest in sustainable techniques has been growing in relation to waste management, which is largely absorbed by the civil construction sector. This work aimed to review plastic waste, especially polyethylene terephthalate (PET), that can be incorporated with construction materials, such as concrete, mortars, asphalt mixtures, and paving. The use of life-cycle assessment (LCA) is related, as a tool that allows the sustainability of products and processes to be enhanced in the long term. After analyzing the recent literature, it was identified that studies related to plastic wastes in construction materials concentrate sustainability around the alternative destination of waste. Since the plastic waste from different production chains are obtained, it was possible to affirm the need for a broader assessment, such as the LCA, providing greater quantification of data making the alternative processes and products more sustainable. The study contributes to enhance sustainability in alternative building materials through LCA.
162Environmental performance of plastic food packaging: Life cycle assessment extended with costs on marine ecosystem services.PubMed
Lieselot Boone, Nils Préat, Trang T Nhu, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2023 Oct 10;894:164781. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164781. Epub 2023 Jun 13.
Packaging can play a substantial role in moving towards more sustainable food systems by affecting the amount of food loss and waste. However, the use of plastic packaging gives rise to environmental concerns, such as high energy and fossil resource use, and waste management issues such as marine litter. Alternative biobased biodegradable materials, such as poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) could address some of these issues. For a careful comparison in terms of environmental sustainability between fossil-based, non-biodegradable and alternative plastic food packaging, not only production but also food preservation and end-of-life (EoL) fate must be considered. Life cycle assessment (LCA) can be used to evaluate the environmental performance, but the environmental burden of plastics released into the natural environment is not yet embedded in classical LCA. Therefore, a new indicator is being developed that accounts for the effect of plastic litter on marine ecosystems, one of the main burdens of plastic's EoL fate: lifetime costs on marine ecosystem services. This indicator enables a quantitative assessment and thus addresses a major criticism of plastic packaging LCA. The comprehensive analysis is performed on the case of falafel packaged in PHBV and conventional polypropylene (PP) packaging. Considering the impact per kilogram of packaged falafel consumed, food ingredients make the largest contribution. The LCA results indicate a clear preference for the use of PP trays, both in terms of (1) impact of packaging production and dedicated EoL treatment and (2) packaging-related impacts. This is mainly due to the higher mass and volume of the alternative tray. Nevertheless, since PHBV has limited persistence in the environment compared to PP packaging, the lifetime costs for marine ES are about seven times lower, and this despite its higher mass. Although further refinements are needed, the additional indicator allows for a more balanced evaluation of plastic packaging.
163Global plastic waste recycling and extended producer responsibility laws.PubMed
Khairun Tumu, Keith Vorst, Greg Curtzwiler
J Environ Manage. 2023 Dec 15;348:119242. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119242. Epub 2023 Oct 11.
In the USA, 8.66% of municipal solid waste (MSW) plastic was recycled and 75.9% landfilled (2018). Some critical challenges in widespread adoption of post-consumer recycled (PCR) plastic include high collection costs, sortation complexity, inconsistent feedstock properties, and unknown contamination leading to safety considerations. The objective of this review is to discuss global Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) policies/regulations and their ability to facilitate coordination of domestic/international policies and business to overcome critical recycling complications. Global EPR and recycling laws were examined to compare and contrast initiatives to increase recycling and avoid plastic waste generation. EPR laws increase producers' liability towards product generation, marketing, and disposal by applying fees and taxes on products depending on product recyclability and volume generation. Countries with established plastic EPR regulations and landfill bans often possess higher recycling rates. The results of this research can facilitate development of local regulatory mandates to increase recycling rates.
164Surface wettability control and electron transport regulation in zerovalent iron for enhanced removal of emerging polystyrene microplastics-heavy metal contaminants.PubMed
Yufei Zhang, Haoyang Fu, Xi Chen, et al.
Water Res. 2024 Jun 1;256:121602. doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2024.121602. Epub 2024 Apr 10.
Emerging microplastics-heavy metal (MPs-HM) contaminants in wastewaters pose an emerging health and environmental risk due to their persistence and increasing ecological risks (e.g., "Trojan horse" effect). Hence, removing MPs in solution and preventing secondary releases of HM has become a key challenge when tackling with MPs pollution. Leveraging the hydrophobic nature of MPs and the electron transfer efficiency from Fe to HM, we demonstrate an alkylated and sulfidated nanoscale zerovalent iron (AS-nZVI) featuring a delicate "core-shell-hydrophobic film" nanostructure. Exemplified by polystyrene (PS) MPs-Pb(II) removal, the three nanocomponents offer synergistic functions for the rapid separation of MPs, as well as the reduction and stabilization of Pb(II). The outmost hydrophobic film of AS-nZVI greatly improves the anticorrosion performance of nanoscale zerovalent iron and the enrichment abilities of hydrophobic MPs, achieving a maximum removal capacity of MPs to 2725.87 mg·g. This MPs enrichment promotes the subsequent reductive removal of Pb(II) through the electron transfer from the iron core of AS-nZVI to Pb(II), a process further strengthened by the introduced sulfur. When considering the inevitable aging of MPs in wastewaters due to mechanical wear or microbial degradation, our study concurrently examines the efficiencies and behaviors of AS-nZVI in removing virgin-MPs-Pb(II) and aged-MPs-Pb(II). The batch results reveal that AS-nZVI has an exceptional ability to remove above 99.6 % Pb(II) for all reaction systems. Overall, this work marks a pioneering effort in highlighting the importance of MPs-toxin combinations in dealing with MPs contamination and in demonstrating the utility of nZVI techniques for MPs-contaminated water purification.
165Addressing plastic pollution and waste flows: Insights from South Africa's experience.PubMed
Suzan Hh Oelofse, Valentina Russo, William Stafford
Waste Manag Res. 2024 Oct;42(10):911-917. doi: 10.1177/0734242X241265009. Epub 2024 Jul 28.
The Pew Charitable Trust's 2020 report 'Breaking the Plastic Wave', indicates that existing technologies could support an 80% reduction in plastic leakage relative to business as usual by 2040. Therefore, South Africa became the first country to work with the Pew Charitable Trust and Oxford University to test and apply 'Pathways', a modelling framework and software tool which stemmed and evolved from the Pew report, at country level. The tool calculates the flows of plastics in the economy and the impact of various strategies to reduce future plastic pollution. The Scenario Builder within the Pathways tool allows the user to optimise flows in the plastics value chain to satisfy a set of defined objectives in order to achieve an optimal solution. Three major findings have emerged from the application of Pathways at country level for South Africa. Firstly, plastic pollution is set to almost double by 2040 if no interventions are implemented. Secondly, meeting the newly legislated extended producer responsibility (EPR) targets set for plastic packaging can avoid 33% of projected total pollution over the period of 2023-2040. Lastly, an optimal system change can avoid 63% of total plastic pollution over the period 2023-2040. Thus, applying Pathways at country level in South Africa has proven to be valuable by setting a baseline against which progress towards reducing plastic pollution can be measured; determining the outcome of meeting the legislated EPR targets over time, and informing policy decisions by allowing users to model different scenarios towards an optimal system change scenario.
166Managing plastic packaging waste in emerging economies: The case of EPR in India.PubMed
Saroj Kumar Pani, Atul Arun Pathak
J Environ Manage. 2021 Jun 15;288:112405. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112405. Epub 2021 Mar 27.
India's large population, rapidly growing economy, and the consequent rising plastic waste, has necessitated the need for an efficient and effective plastic waste management (PWM) system for ensuring an environmentally cleaner and sustainable future. Consequently, PWM policy in India has recently undergone a substantial shift from being an informally organized, largely uncoordinated set of programs towards becoming a formal and integrated system based on the extended producer responsibility (EPR) approach. This paper explicates the evolution, development, implementation, and implications of the Indian EPR framework for PWM by developing an integrative mixed-method case study. Using a theory-based stakeholder evaluation model, the study critically analyzes the drivers and constraining factors from a multi-stakeholder perspective and provides prescriptive suggestions on EPR policy formulation and implementation. It highlights three themes i.e., (a) robust regulatory architecture; (b) operational mechanism; and (c) ecosystem catalysts, whose nature, dynamics, and practicality shall determine the future of the Indian EPR framework and those of comparable emerging economies.
167Applying the extended producer responsibility towards plastic waste in Asian developing countries for reducing marine plastic debris.PubMed
Hendro Putra Johannes, Michikazu Kojima, Fusanori Iwasaki, et al.
Waste Manag Res. 2021 May;39(5):690-702. doi: 10.1177/0734242X211013412. Epub 2021 Apr 28.
The extended producer responsibility (EPR) has been adopted in many countries throughout the world to give producers responsibility to manage their products until the post-consumer stage. On many occasions in developing countries, the system is mostly implemented for electronic waste. However, with the rising concern on the marine plastic issue, developing countries, including those in Asia, have started to apply EPR for package and container waste. In practice, developing countries show significant differences in their EPR implementation compared with developed ones due to contrasting conditions of several factors, including social, economic and technology. This article aims to explore the challenges of developing countries to apply EPR as well as determine possible measures to overcome the challenges. Results show that applying EPR system for plastic waste in developing countries faces many challenges, such as the existence of a market-based collection system of recyclables, high transportation cost, lack of waste collection services in rural areas, a limited number of facilities to manage certain types of plastic waste, insufficient pollution control and free riding and orphan products. The challenges, furthermore, can be minimised by differentiating the responsibility of producers, focusing on rural and remote areas, involving informal sectors, creating joint facilities in recycling parks, expanding waste management collection services, increasing the use of EPR and minimising free riding.
168Assessment of the contribution of municipal solid waste dumping coupled with open burning to the contamination of the surrounding environment by plasticizers.PubMed
Oumaima Rejeb, Sabrine Afsa, Dhekra Toumi, et al.
Waste Manag. 2025 Aug 1;204:114909. doi: 10.1016/j.wasman.2025.114909. Epub 2025 May 28.
Open dumping sites have become a hotspot for combined environmental pollution. In developing countries, including Tunisia, this practice is commonly coupled with municipal solid waste open burning as a costless method compared to other methodologies. However, the resulting pollution may cause a significant hazard to the surrounding environment and the nearby population's health by spreading dangerous chemicals such as plasticizers. In this context, the current study aimed at evaluating the levels of contamination across the dumpsite coupled with open burnings in Mahdia city by plasticizers. Gas chromatography-single quadrupole mass spectrometry analyses were conducted to identify and measure the concentration levels of 18 plasticizers in various environmental matrices. The results of this study have shown the occurrence of several plasticizers (n = 10) at a wide range of concentrations, with di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, diisobutyl phthalate, and di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate being the predominant compounds. Interestingly, the total concentration of plasticizers detected in plant matrices was significantly higher than those found in the majority of the remaining matrices. Namely, the detected concentrations of total plasticizers were in the following order: plant samples (3.777 mg Kg dw) > fly ash (2.581 mg Kg dw) > soil-leachate (1.403 mg Kg dw) > soil (0.816 mg Kg dw) > sediment (0.505 mg Kg dw) > water (0.009 mg L dw). Our findings confirm a large distribution of phthalates (PAE) and non-phthalates (NPP) across the open dumping site in "Sabkha of Oued EL Maleh." The detection of plasticizers in plant materials affirms their potential to bioconcentrate through the food chain. Atmospheric transport and deposition of pollutants following waste-burning practices could play a significant role in the contamination of the neighboring area, highlighting a serious environmental and health impact of MSW mismanagement.
169Microplastics in different municipal solid waste treatment and disposal systems: Do they pose environmental risks?PubMed
Lei Zhang, Wentao Zhao, Ruiqi Yan, et al.
Water Res. 2024 May 15;255:121443. doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2024.121443. Epub 2024 Mar 9.
Microplastic (MP) pollution is a significant worldwide environmental and health challenge. Municipal solid waste (MSW) can be an important source of MPs in the environment if treated and disposed of inappropriately, causing potential ecological risks. MSW treatment and disposal methods have been gradually shifting from landfilling/dumping to more sustainable approaches, such as incineration or composting. However, previous studies on MP characteristics in different MSW treatment and disposal systems have mainly focused either on landfills/dumpsites or composts. The lack of knowledge of multiple MSW treatment and disposal systems makes it difficult to ensure effective MP pollution control during MSW treatment and disposal. Therefore, this study systematically summarizes the occurrence of MPs in different MSW treatment and disposal systems (landfill/dumpsite, compost, and incineration) on the Eurasian scale, and discusses the factors that influence MPs in individual MSW treatment and disposal systems. In addition, the paper assesses the occurrence of MPs in the surrounding environment of MSW treatment and disposal systems and their ecological risks using the species sensitivity distribution approach. The study also highlights recommendations for future research, to more comprehensively describe the occurrence and fate of MPs during MSW treatment and disposal processes, and to develop appropriate pollution control measures to minimize MP pollution.
170Microplastics in Sewage Sludge: A review.PubMed
Claudio Casella, Daniel Sol, Adriana Laca, et al.
Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2023 May;30(23):63382-63415. doi: 10.1007/s11356-023-27151-6. Epub 2023 Apr 20.
Microplastics (MPs) represent a serious problem for the environment and for this reason they have been studied in many articles, especially their presence in aquatic environments and soils. MPs have been found in wastewater and sewage sludge from municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Most part of the published works have focused on the detection and elimination of MPs in the water line and several reviews have been published in the last years. In addition, the application of sewage sludge produced from WWTPs for agricultural use is known to be a primary source of MPs in soils. However, in the scientific literature less attention has been paid to the sludge and little is known about MPs fate when it is applied in agriculture. This work aims to give a global revision on the most used techniques to identify and detect MPs in sludges, their characteristics and incidence, their effect on sludge treatments and their impact on the environment. As far as we know, there are no standardized protocols for MPs extraction from soil and the possible repercussions on the cultivation of plants are not known. This review evidences that more studies are necessary to stablished standardized protocols and decipher the main mechanisms and the effects of MPs from sewage sludge in the environment.
171Microplastics generation and concentration during mechanical-biological treatment of mixed municipal solid waste.PubMed
Anastasiia Sholokhova, Gintaras Denafas, Valeriy Mykhaylenko
Environ Res. 2022 Nov;214(Pt 1):113815. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.113815. Epub 2022 Jul 5.
Mechanical-biological treatment (MBT) is a popular solution for the processing of mixed municipal solid waste (MSW). However, it is assumed that the treatment processes can lead to the generation of microplastics in large quantities and their concentration in the organic output. Organic outputs from MBT as a source of microplastics are still poorly understood. The current article aims to fill this gap and investigate microplastics formation during MBT and their abundance in ready stabilized organic output. Seasonal samples were taken from the four stages of the possible microplastics pathway in MBT to study changes in microplastics numerical and mass concentration, shape and size. Large microplastics were identified by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and small microplastics by Nile Red dye staining method. The results showed that both mechanical pre-treatment and aerobic treatment had a significant impact on microplastics formation, while mechanical post-treatment only resulted in the enrichment of the output with microplastics. Moreover, microplastics became finer during treatment. Microplastics abundance in ready organic output ranged from 8925 ± 1344 particles/kg in winter 2021 to 17407 ± 4319 particles/kg in summer 2020, and up to 160.5 t of microplastics were emitted from the Kaunas MBT treatment facility during the study year. In addition, a relationship between the microplastics abundance and plastic content of the incoming waste was found by a regression analysis. Therefore, to reduce the formation and emission of microplastics by MBT, the organic fraction of MSW should be collected and treated separately.
172Nanotechnology-based approaches for the removal of microplastics from wastewater: a comprehensive review.PubMed
Nayanathara O Sanjeev, Manjunath Singanodi Vallabha, Rebekah Rubidha Lisha Rabi
Beilstein J Nanotechnol. 2025 Sep 15;16:1607-1632. doi: 10.3762/bjnano.16.114. eCollection 2025.
The increasing prevalence of microplastics (MPs) in aquatic environments has raised significant concerns due to their persistence, potential for bioaccumulation, and adverse effects on human and ecosystem health. Conventional wastewater treatment technologies are largely inadequate for effectively removing MPs, especially those in the nanosize range. This review presents a detail analysis of the sources, pathways, detection methods, and health impact of MPs, while emphasizing the emerging role of nanotechnology in their remediation. Nanomaterials, including nanoadsorbents, photocatalysts, and advanced membrane materials, exhibit unique properties such as high surface area, enhanced reactivity, and tunable surface chemistry, which offer promising avenues for the selective and efficient removal of MPs from water. This paper also explores the mechanism, performance and limitations of various nanoenabled treatment strategies such as adsorption, photocatalysis, and membrane filtration using materials like metal-organic frameworks, carbon-based nanomaterials, MXenes, and metal oxides. It also highlights recent innovations such as microrobotic systems and AI-assisted detection frameworks for MP monitoring. Despite high laboratory scale efficiencies, there are several challenges such as material scalability, environmental safety, regulatory frameworks, and real water applicability. This study proposes future directions for sustainable nanotechnology deployment, including green synthesis, hybrid system integration, and machine learning optimization. Together, these approaches aim to establish a comprehensive, scalable, and environmentally safe solution for the remediation of MPs in wastewater systems.
173Microplastic removal and management strategies for wastewater treatment plants.PubMed
Shams Forruque Ahmed, Nafisa Islam, Nuzaba Tasannum, et al.
Chemosphere. 2024 Jan;347:140648. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140648. Epub 2023 Nov 10.
Discharging microplastics into the environment with treated wastewater is becoming a major concern around the world. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) release microplastics into terrestrial and aquatic habitats, mostly from textile, laundry, and cosmetic industries. Despite extensive research on microplastics in the environment, their removal, and WWTP management strategies, highlighting their environmental effects, little is known about microplastics' fate and behaviour during various treatment processes. Microplastics interact with treatment technologies differently due to their diverse physical and chemical characteristics, resulting in varying removal efficiency. Microplastics removed from WWTPs may accumulate in soil and harm terrestrial ecosystems. Few studies have examined the cost, energy use, and trade-offs of large-scale implementation of modern treatment methods for the removal of microplastics. To safeguard aquatic and terrestrial habitats from microplastics' contamination, focused and efficient management techniques must bridge these knowledge gaps. This review summarizes microplastic detection, collection, removal and management strategies. A compilation of treatment process studies on microplastics' removal efficiency and their destiny and transit paths shows recent improvement. Bioremediation, membrane bioreactor (MBR), electrocoagulation, sol-gel technique, flotation, enhanced filtering, and AOPs are evaluated for microplastic removal. The fate and behaviour of microplastics in WWTPs suggest they may be secondary suppliers of microplastics to receiving ecosystems. Innovative microplastic removal strategies and technologies such as nanoparticles, microorganism-based remediation, and tertiary treatment raise issues. These new WWTP technologies are examined for feasibility, limitations, and implementation issues. Pretreatment modifies microplastic size, adsorption potential, and surface morphology to remove microplastics from WWTPs. Membrane bioreactors (MBR) can remove 99.9% of microplastics more efficiently than other approaches. MBR systems require membrane cleaning and fouling control, which raises operational and capital costs. To reduce MPs, plastic alternatives and strict controls, including microplastic waste transformation, should be prioritized. Microplastics must be controlled through monitoring policy execution and awareness.
174Membrane Processes for Microplastic Removal.PubMed
Teresa Poerio, Emma Piacentini, Rosalinda Mazzei
Molecules. 2019 Nov 15;24(22):4148. doi: 10.3390/molecules24224148.
Plastic pollution of the aquatic environment is a major concern considering the disastrous impact on the environment and on human beings. The significant and continuous increase in the production of plastics causes an enormous amount of plastic waste on the land entering the aquatic environment. Furthermore, wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are reported as the main source of microplastic and nanoplastic in the effluents, since they are not properly designed for this purpose. The application of advanced wastewater treatment technologies is mandatory to avoid effluent contamination by plastics. A concrete solution can be represented by membrane technologies as tertiary treatment of effluents in integrated systems for wastewater treatment, in particular, for the plastic particles with a smaller size (< 100 nm). In this review, a survey of the membrane processes applied in the plastic removal is analyzed and critically discussed. From the literature analysis, it was found that the removal of microplastic by membrane technology is still insufficient, and without the use of specially designed approaches, with the exception of membrane bioreactors (MBRs).
175Removal of Microplastics in a Hybrid Treatment Process of Ceramic Microfiltration and Photocatalyst-Mounted PES Spheres with Air Backwashing.PubMed
Minjoo Song, Jin Yong Park
Membranes (Basel). 2024 Jul 31;14(8):169. doi: 10.3390/membranes14080169.
Microplastics (MPs), which are defined as plastics with a size of less than 5 mm, cannot be treated completely in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and discharged to a water body because they are too small in size. It has been reported that MPs can have adverse effects on human beings and water ecosystems. There is a need to combine existing drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) and WWTPs with the traditional treatment process and technology with high removal efficiency of MPs or to develop a new technology to separate MPs from water and wastewater. In this study, the effects of MPs (polyethylene (PE), 125 μm) and organic matter (humic acid) were researched in a hybrid treatment process of ceramic microfiltration (MF) and photocatalyst (TiO)-mounted polyether sulfone (PES) spheres with air backwashing. The roles of the MF, photooxidation, and adsorption of PES spheres were confirmed in a single MF process (MF), an MF process with UV irradiation (MF+UV), MF and PES sphere adsorption without UV irradiation (MF+PES), and a hybrid process incorporating MF and PES spheres with UV irradiation (MF+PES+UV). The impact of the air backwashing cycle (filtration time, FT) on filtration characteristics and treatment efficiencies in the hybrid process was studied. In the MF process, membrane fouling increased with increasing organic matter (HA, humic acid). The treatment efficiency of MPs increased; however, that of dissolved organic matter (DOM) decreased with increasing HA. As MPs increased, the membrane fouling decreased; however, total filtration volume (V) remained almost constant. The treatment efficiency of MPs increased a little, and that of DOM showed a dropping trend. In the hybrid process, the membrane fouling was controlled via the adsorption and UV photooxidation of the PES spheres, and the DOM treatment efficiency increased by combining processes from MF to MF+PES+UV. The optimal FT was 10 min at BT 10 s in this hybrid process. The results could be applied to separate MPs effectively in DWTPs/WWTPs.
176Functionalization of cellulose acetate nanofibrous membranes for removal of particulate matters and dyes.PubMed
Xiao Yang, Hongyang Ma, Yi Chen, et al.
Int J Biol Macromol. 2024 Jun;269(Pt 2):131852. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.131852. Epub 2024 Apr 26.
Particulates and organic toxins, such as microplastics and dye molecules, are contaminants in industrial wastewater that must be purified due to environmental and sustainability concerns. Carboxylated cellulose acetate (CTA-COOH) nanofibrous membranes were fabricated using electrospinning followed by an innovative one-step surface hydrolysis/oxidation replacing the conventional two-step reactions. This approach offers a new pathway for the modification strategy of cellulose-based membranes. The CTA-COOH membrane was utilized for the removal of particulates and cationic dyes through filtration and adsorption, respectively. The filtration performance of the CTA-COOH nanofibrous membrane was carried out; high separation efficiency and low pressure drop were achieved, in addition to the high filtration selectivity against 0.6-μm and 0.8-μm nanoparticles. A cationic Bismarck Brown Y, was employed to challenge the adsorption capability of the CTA-COOH nanofibrous membrane, where the maximum adsorption capacity of the membrane for BBY was 158.73 mg/g. The self-standing CTA-COOH membrane could be used to conduct adsorption-desorption for 17 cycles with the regeneration rate as high as 97.0 %. The CTA-COOH nanofibrous membrane has excellent mechanical properties and was employed to manufacture a spiral wound adsorption cartridge, which exhibited remarkable separation efficiency in terms of treated water volume, which was 5.96 L, and retention rate, which was 100 %.
177A critical review of microplastics and nanoplastics in wastewater: Insights into adsorbent-based remediation strategies.PubMed
Khoi Lun Ho, Swee Pin Yeap, Kiat Moon Lee
Environ Pollut. 2025 Oct 1;382:126658. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2025.126658. Epub 2025 Jun 11.
This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of research on the removal of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs), with a focus on adsorption-based solutions. The presence of plastic particles in the environment is a growing concern due to their widespread distribution across aquatic, terrestrial, and atmospheric systems. To address this environmental issue, researchers have explored various removal technologies, including coagulation, sand filtration, membrane filtration, and adsorption. A bibliometric analysis of 7641 keywords from 771 publications reveals that adsorption is the most widely studied removal technique. Thus, this has led to a deeper exploration of various adsorbents and their mechanisms, including their interactions with plastic particles and how they can be optimised for higher removal performance. The main adsorption mechanisms involve electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonding, π-π interactions, and hydrophobic effects. Chemisorption is the primary interaction in the adsorption process, while physisorption is affected by the size and surface properties of plastic particles. A trend analysis indicates that carbon-based and metal-based adsorbents dominate the research landscape, with higher publication rates compared to biopolymer-based adsorbents. However, from an environmental perspective, biopolymer-based adsorbents are preferable due to their biodegradability, low toxicity, and renewable nature. This review discusses the mechanisms of these adsorbents, evaluates the limitations of current removal technologies, and outlines future research directions aimed at developing advanced and sustainable adsorbents to address the growing challenge of plastic pollution.
178Adsorptive behavior of micro(nano)plastics through biochar: Co-existence, consequences, and challenges in contaminated ecosystems.PubMed
Rakesh Kumar, Anurag Verma, Md Refat Jahan Rakib, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2023 Jan 15;856(Pt 1):159097. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159097. Epub 2022 Sep 28.
The abundance of micro(nano)plastics in natural ecosystems is a crucial global challenge, as these small-sized plastic particles originate from land-based and marine-based activities and are widely present in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial ecosystems. Micro(nano)plastics can significantly be reduced through various methods, such as biological, chemical, and physical techniques. Biochar is a low-cost adsorbent and is considered an efficient material and its application is ecologically effective carbon-negative for remediation of organic and inorganic pollutants. Therefore, this review critically discusses the fate and transport of micro(nano)plastics and their interactions with different biochar in aqueous and column porous media. This review outlines the implications of biochar with the co-existence of micro(nano)plastics in efforts to understand their coupled effects on soil physicochemical properties, microbial communities, and plant growth, along with the removal of heavy metals and other toxic contaminants. In batch experiments, biochar synthesized from various biomasses such as corn straw, hardwood, pine and spruce bark, corncob, and Prosopis juliflora had shown high level of removal efficiency (>90 %) for microplastic adsorption under varying environmental conditions viz., pH, temperature, ionic strength, particle size, and dose due to chemical bonding and electrostatic attractions. Increased temperature of the aqueous solutions encouraged higher adsorption, while higher pH and dissolved organic matter and nutrients may show decreased adsorption capacities for micro(nano)plastics using biochar. Compared to other available physical, chemical, and biological methods, biochar-amended sand filters in column experiments have been very efficient in removing micro(nano)plastics. In saturated column porous media, various microplastics could be inhibited using biochar due to decreased electrostatic repulsion, steric hindrance, and competitive sorption due to humic acid, ionic strength, and cations. Finally, this review provides in-depth insights on further investigations and recommendations for overall micro(nano)plastics removal using biochar-based materials.
179Tea/Coffee Sustainable Nanoarchitectures Purify Wastewater.PubMed
Gao Xiao, Junling Guo, Mingzhu Zheng, et al.
Nano Lett. 2024 Dec 11;24(49):15509-15516. doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.4c03070. Epub 2024 Nov 27.
Transforming spent coffee grounds and tea residues into valuable hierarchical porous materials presents a sustainable solution for environmental remediation due to the low cost, extensive availability, and versatile functionalized interface. Here, we systematically investigated tea polyphenol-mediated morphological transformation of spent coffee grounds to the synthesis of three-dimensional (3D) mesoporous metal-organic framework (MOF)-derived nanoarchitectured carbon composites. We adopted the sustainable cost-effective tea-coffee derivative to remove typical marine micropollutants, such as antibiotic wastewater, radioactive pollutants, and microplastics. This innovative adsorbent shows remarkable efficiency in antibiotic adsorption, achieving up to 99.62% removal of tetracycline (TC), with an impressive maximum adsorption capacity of 373.1 mg/g. It also demonstrates a remarkable ability to remove marine microplastics and radioactive pollutants with immediate nuclear threats and global sanitation and health crisis posed by Fukushima nuclear waste toward the world. The innovative strategy of treating waste with waste highlights economic potential in wastewater treatment.
180Removal of microplastics from water by coagulation of cationic-modified starch: An environmentally friendly solution.PubMed
Wei Gao, Aoyun Mo, Jie Jiang, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2023 Dec 15;904:166787. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166787. Epub 2023 Sep 4.
Microplastics (MPs) pose a potential risk to aquatic ecosystems, and there is a growing demand to alleviate the contamination of MPs. Here, we introduce cationic-modified starch (CS) as an eco-friendly bio-coagulant for removing MPs from water. CS with varying degrees of substitution was synthesized and characterized, and its performance in removing MPs was evaluated under different MP sizes, types, and aging, as well as various water conditions. The results indicated that CS efficiently removed MPs, achieving an average removal rate of 65.33 % for polystyrene particles, with higher removal rates for larger, high-density, and aged MPs. The efficiency of CS remained consistent across a wide range of water pH values, but was significantly reduced in the presence of kaolin clay or/and humic acid. The removal efficiency of CS for MPs was enhanced by the non-ionic surfactant, Tween 20, but inhibited by the anionic surfactant, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide. In addition, CS could concurrently remove both MPs and phenanthrene, as a typical water contaminant. Moreover, the applicability of CS was demonstrated in natural water samples from the Ecological Demonstration Zone of the Yangtze River Delta, China, with an average removal rate of 60.13 ± 3.15 %. Taken together, this study offers an environmentally friendly and cost-effective approach for the removal of MPs from water, demonstrating CS has significant application potential as a sustainable solution to mitigate microplastic pollution.
181Insights into the removal of microplastics and microfibres by Advanced Oxidation Processes.PubMed
Naiara de Oliveira Dos Santos, Rosa Busquets, Luiza C Campos
Sci Total Environ. 2023 Feb 25;861:160665. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160665. Epub 2022 Dec 5.
Water treatment plants' effluents are hotspots of microplastics (MPs) and microfibres (MFs) released into the aquatic environment because they were not designed to capture these particles. Special attention should be given to MFs, since they mainly come from laundry and are related to one of the main MP shapes detected in water and wastewater treatment plants. In this sense, Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) could be a feasible solution for tackling MP and MF pollution, however, it is still premature to extract conclusions due to the limited number of studies on the degradation of these particles (specifically MFs) using AOPs. This review addresses the impacts of AOPs on MPs/MFs, focusing on their degradation efficiency, toxicity, and sustainability of the processes, among other aspects. The review points out that polyamide MFs can achieve mass loss >90% by photocatalytic system using TiO. Also, the low oxidation of MPs (<30 %) by conventional Fenton process affects mainly the surface of the MPs. However, other Fenton-based processes can provide better removal of some types of MPs, mainly using temperatures >100 °C, reaction time ≥ 5 h, and initial pH ≤ 3, achieving MP weight loss up to 96 %. Despite these results, better operating conditions are still required for AOPs since the ones reported so far are not feasible for full-scale application. Additionally, ozonation in treatment plants has increased the fragmentation of MPs (including MFs), leading to a new generation of MPs. More attention is needed on toxicity effects of intermediates and methods of analysis employed for the analysis of MPs/MFs in wastewater effluent should be standardized so that studies can be compared effectively. Future research should focus on the sustainability of the AOP for MP removal in water treatment (power consumption, chemicals consumed and operational costs) for a better understanding of full-scale applicability of AOP adapted to MP treatment.
182Surfactant-sodium dodecyl sulfate enhanced degradation of polystyrene microplastics with an energy-saving electrochemical advanced oxidation process (EAOP) strategy.PubMed
Jinrong Lu, Rui Hou, Yi Wang, et al.
Water Res. 2022 Nov 1;226:119277. doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.119277. Epub 2022 Oct 19.
Microplastics have been identified as a kind of emerging pollutant with potential ecological risks, and it is an urgent endeavor to find proper technologies for their remediation. Electrochemical advanced oxidation process (EAOP) technology has exhibited robust performance in the removal of various refractory organic pollutants. In this study, we explored a new remediation strategy for polystyrene microplastics (PS MPs), introducing sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) to enhance its degradation performance in boron-doped diamond (BDD) anode adopted EAOP. At first, we investigated the degradation behaviors of SDS in the BDD electrolysis. According to the SDS half-life under various current densities, the SDS addition strategy into EAOP is proposed; that is, supplement SDS to 500 mg/L at every half-life during electrolysis except the last cycle. Results indicated that SDS addition greatly enhanced MPs degradation rate in 72 h of EAOP, about 1.35-2.29 times higher than that in BDD electrolysis alone. The SDS assisted EAOP also led to more obvious changes in the particle size, morphology, and functional groups of the MPs. After treatment, a variety of alkyl-cleavage and oxidation products were identified, which attributed to the strong attack of oxidants (i.e., persulfate) on the MPs. The enhanced persulfate generation and oxidants adsorption on MPs can explain the enhancement effect in the EAOP strategy. Cost analysis results showed the surfactant only accounts for < 0.05% of the total operating costs in the SDS assisted EAOP. In general, the current study provided new insight into the effective way to improve the EAOP efficiency of microplastics.
183The power of green: Harnessing phytoremediation to combat micro/nanoplastics.PubMed
Wenke Yuan, Elvis Genbo Xu, Soha Shabaka, et al.
Eco Environ Health. 2024 Apr 16;3(3):260-265. doi: 10.1016/j.eehl.2024.04.001. eCollection 2024 Sep.
Plastic pollution and its potential risks have been raising public concerns as a global environmental issue. Global plastic waste may double by 2030, posing a significant challenge to the remediation of environmental plastics. In addition to finding alternative products and managing plastic emission sources, effective removal technologies are crucial to mitigate the negative impact of plastic pollution. However, current remediation strategies, including physical, chemical, and biological measures, are unable to compete with the surging amounts of plastics entering the environment. This perspective lays out recent advances to propel both research and action. In this process, phytoaccumulation, phytostabilization, and phytofiltration can be applied to reduce the concentration of nanoplastics and submicron plastics in terrestrial, aquatic, and atmospheric environments, as well as to prevent the transport of microplastics from sources to sinks. Meanwhile, advocating for a more promising future still requires significant efforts in screening hyperaccumulators, coupling multiple measures, and recycling stabilized plastics from plants. Phytoremediation can be an excellent strategy to alleviate global micro/nanoplastic pollution because of the cost-effectiveness and environmental sustainability of green technologies.
184Analytical challenges in detecting microplastics and nanoplastics in soil-plant systems.PubMed
Imran Azeem, Noman Shakoor, Sadaf Chaudhary, et al.
Plant Physiol Biochem. 2023 Nov;204:108132. doi: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2023.108132. Epub 2023 Oct 21.
Microplastics (MPx) and nanoplastics (NPx) are increasingly accumulating in terrestrial ecosystems, heightening concerns about their potential adverse effects on human health via the food chain. Techniques aimed at recovering the most challenging colloidal fractions of MPx and NPx, especially for analytical purposes, are limited. This systematic review emphasises the absence of a universal, efficient, and cost-effective analytical method as the primary hindrance to studying MPx and NPx in soil and plant samples. The study reveals that several methods, including density separation, organic matter removal, and filtration, are utilized to detect MPx or NPx in soil through vibrational spectroscopy and visual identification. Instruments such as Pyrolysis Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (Py-GCMS), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy, and fluorescence microscopy are employed to identify MPx and NPx in plant tissue. In extraction procedures, organic solvents and sonication are used to isolate NPx from plant tissues, while Pyrolysis GC-MS quantifies the plastics. SEM and TEM serve to observe and characterize NPx within plant tissues. Additionally, FTIR and fluorescence microscopy are utilized to identify polymers of MPx and NPx based on their spectral characteristics and fluorescence signals. The findings from this review clarify the identification and quantification methods for MPx and NPx in soil and plant systems and provide a comprehensive methodology for assessing MPx/NPx in the environment.
185Microplastics in China Sea: Analysis, status, source, and fate.PubMed
Qian Wang, Chunya Guan, Jie Han, et al.
Sci Total Environ. 2022 Jan 10;803:149887. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149887. Epub 2021 Aug 25.
Microplastics (MPs) in marine environments have raised increasing concerns worldwide in recent years. China is one of the largest plastic producers in the world. In this review, available information on MPs in China Sea was reviewed, including studies on seawater, sediment, and biota. The status and limits of sampling methods of MPs were summarized, such as sampling tools, sampling volume, and depth of sampling. The analytical methods of MPs were outlined, such as sieving, density separation, purification, filtration, and visual sorting. The characteristics of MPs, such as abundances, sizes, shapes, polymer types, sources, and fates were analyzed. The abundances of MPs in China Sea varied from 0.1 to 27,840.0 items m in seawater, and from 13.0 to 14,712.0 items kg d.w. in sediments. Furthermore, MPs were mainly featured with sizes ranging from 0.001 to 0.5 mm, with colors of transparent and black, and polymer types of polypropylene and polyethylene. To promote research on MPs in China Sea, the sampling and analytical methods were insufficiently standardized and should be improved. As for microplastic (MP) pollution in China Sea, laws and regulations have already been established to manage and control plastic waste. Furthermore, several suggestions to control plastic pollution were as follows: (1) control marine plastic pollution at the source; (2) strengthen technological innovations; (3) urge people to minimize disposable plastic products in their daily lives; (4) strengthen international cooperation in the treatment of marine plastic waste.
186Plastic Waste and the Environmental Crisis Industry.PubMed
Oliver Smith, Avi Brisman
Crit Criminol. 2021;29(2):289-309. doi: 10.1007/s10612-021-09562-4. Epub 2021 Mar 16.
Our relationship with plastic is complex. While the societal benefits of plastic are undeniable, plastic has also come to occupy a central role within a culture of waste and disposable living that constitutes a significant problem for health and the natural environment. Public awareness of the harms asociated with plastic is high, thanks, in part, to a range of sustained media exposure. This, however, has so far failed to materialize in any significant global reduction in plastic pollution. Meaningful regulatory change that adressess the harms of plastic at the point of production is curiously absent, while some apparent gains have been rolled back-against a backdrop of a global pandemic and a rehabilitation of plastic. This article highlights the assemblage of media, government and corporate interests that performs the role of what we identify as the "Environmental Crisis Industry" ("ECI"), which perpetuates stasis in the face of environmental catastrphe. The ECI manages our anxieties through media discourses of precarity and danger, while at the same time, offering us attainable "solutions" that exist well within the logic of consumer capitalism-in effect, compelling us (at least morally) to become eco-consumers. In this way, the political energy of grassroots climate resistance is "pre-corporated," so to speak, into the product design of major corporations, dissipating the chance of real progressive change in favor of a new green spirit of capitalism.
187Enhancing consumption responsibility to address global plastic pollution.PubMed
Wenqian Cai, Louis A Tremblay, Lihui An
Mar Pollut Bull. 2022 Oct;183:114089. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.114089. Epub 2022 Sep 8.
Plastic pollution is a global crisis, especially in the marine environment. Excessive consumption and unsound disposal are responsible for the constant accumulation of plastic waste, resulting in plastic litter and microplastic contamination on a global scale. Establishing a new global framework is regarded as a promising tool to address plastic pollution, including marine plastic litter. However, there is a need to raise awareness of the role of consumers at individual and national levels in reducing the use of unnecessary plastics and increasing the recycling of plastic waste. The global framework should incorporate aspects of the importance of consumption responsibility in solutions addressing the issue of plastic pollution.