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3Identifying what matters: Science education, science communication, and democracyOpenAlex

Bruce V. Lewenstein

Many people believe that both public policy and personal action would improve with better access to “reliable knowledge about the natural world” (that thing that we often call science). Many of those people participate in science education and science communication. And yet, both as areas of practice and as objects of academic inquiry, science education and science communication have until recently remained remarkably distinct. Why, and what resources do the articles in this special issue of JRST give us for bringing together both the fields of practice and the fields of inquiry? Disciplinary boundaries are not fixed. As new knowledge emerges, fields shift focus, adopt new research modes, elaborate new theoretical models. In some fields, such as history or literature, the academic discipline (as defined by university departments) stays the same but the questions change. In other fields, new disciplines and departments emerge: molecular biology, information science, or biostatistics. Some fields change name, such as the shift at many universities from “chemistry” to “chemical biology.” But we know that all these changes are not simply logical shifts in focus. Rather, they demonstrate the socially-constructed nature of (academic) boundaries, the push and pull of different groups laying claim to particular areas of inquiry (Hilgartner, 1990; Star & Griesemer, 1989). In this case, as both Davis & Russ and Feinstein note, science education and science communication as disciplines emerged from different arenas of social practice, at least in the United States, the context I know best. (Notably, they did not develop as offshoots of other areas of social science investigation, such as psychology or sociology; they are inextricably linked with their practical origins.) As the professionalization and study of education grew in the 19th and 20th centuries, concerns about how best to define and offer a science curriculum grew as well (Cuban, 1999; DeBoer, 1991; Jenkins, 1994). Meanwhile, as science journalism grew in the mid-20th century, journalism educators and researchers began to explore issues of science communication (Friedman, Dunwoody, & Rogers, 1986; Krieghbaum, 1957,1967). Only after science museums also took on education as a mission (Rader & Cain, 2014) did researchers who focused on learning science in informal environments – a field often distinct from research on education in schools – begin in the late 20th century their attempt to define a field (Crane et al., 1994; Falk and Dierking, 1995; Falk, Donovan, & Woods, 2001; Rahm, 2014). By the end of the century, a few researchers had begun to notice the similarities across the fields (Druger, 1988; Evered and O'Connor, 1987).1 The social boundaries prevented easy exchange, especially among the academic analysts. Education researchers, journalism scholars, and museum studies workers sat in different departments and schools, published in different journals, attended different meetings, relied on different intellectual models and traditions. But increasingly, the researchers (if not the practitioners) found each other – at meetings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (Friedman et al., 1986), in a British research community responding to funding unleashed by a 1985 Royal Society report on “public understanding of science” (Gregory & Lock, 2008), at specialty meetings organized around topics of mutual interest (personal anecdote: I'm a historian of science who studies the history of science journalism; I first met John Falk, a psychologist interested in free-choice learning, at a 1997 meeting on public opinion about science organized by political scientist Jon Miller on the occasion of the 40th anniversary of the Sputnik launch). In the late 1980s, as results emerged from the projects that the 1985 Royal Society report had engendered, researchers discovered that few journals would publish full research reports on work addressing science and public. Because the research focused on “science,” rather than on theoretical questions in education or communication, it was of little interest to the increasingly professionalized academic disciplines. But as social science, it was of little interest to the science journals. By 1992, the journal Public Understanding of Science had been created to provide a venue for these publications (Durant, 1992). Within two years, the journal Knowledge: Creation, Diffusion, Utilization had changed names to Science Communication (LaFollette, 1994). A 1989 meeting in Poitiers, France, on “Communication Publique Scientifique” had become, by the mid- 1990s, the International Network on Public Communication of Science & Technology (PCST), with conferences by 1996 in Spain, Canada, and Australia (Catapano et al., 2003; Fayard, & Lewenstein, 2003). The social networks were growing, but the intellectual connections still required work. The PCST Network, for example, explicitly rejected “education” topics at its early meetings, arguing that it was focused on “the public,” not on schools. Then, in 2002, the PCST meeting was held in Cape Town, South Africa. The organizers there, just a decade after the fall of apartheid, argued that we couldn't draw such a clear line – some of the best science education in the country came from science museums and aquariums, and from science journalists who explicitly wrote about what people needed to learn to move the country forward (Lewenstein, 2003). By the mid-2000s, the potential for linking museum studies, science education in informal environments, and media studies appeared ripe, leading the U.S. National Science Foundation to fund the study Learning Science in Informal Environments (Bell, Lewenstein, Shouse, & Feder, 2009). According to a recent commentary in this journal, that report and a companion volume (Fenichel & Schweingruber, 2010) were “fundamental in helping define a field that has a complex history and remains ill- defined” (Rahm, 2014). The articles collected here are among the first to explicitly take up the challenge of moving beyond definition to intellectual engagement. One feature of work at the socially-contested boundaries between fields is that shared terms may be used as if they mean just one thing, though in fact the different fields may mean different things. In some cases, the ambiguity inherent in the creole of these “trading zones” (Galison, 1997) allows for progress; in other cases, the discovery of a lack of shared meaning prevents progress. The articles in this issue identify both of these situations. Some of what these articles add is scope: from the micro-reading of individual science journalism articles by Davis & Russ to the broad social theory of democracy covered by Feinstein's account of the Lippmann-Dewey debate. Some of what they add is conceptual rigor, using theoretical tools like Theory of Planned Behavior (by Besley et al.) or framing (by Davis & Russ). The articles point to the importance of methodological rigor, as Blanco-Lopez et al.'s description of the Delphi method demonstrates. On two issues – science literacy, and the difference between “education” and “communication” – these articles highlight challenges that have been faced again and again, with little resolution; indeed, one might conclude (as I have) after the detailed expositions here that continued attention to these questions is not productive, for it becomes the equivalent of rearranging the deck chairs on the Titanic. Consider science literacy. Both science education and science communication are motivated by science literacy. But their understanding of what that is or might be are substantially different. Initial attempts to define science literacy in the communication world focused on surveys of public knowledge, both in the United States and in other countries (J. D. Miller, 1983; Miller, 1998; Miller, 2004; Miller, 2011; Miller, 2014). While the data from these ongoing surveys constitutes an extraordinary longitudinal database of great value, interpretation stalled as the value of the surveys beyond polemical purposes became unclear (Bauer, Petkova, & Boyadjjewa, 2000; Bauer & Schoon, 1993; S. Miller, 2001; Toumey et al., 2013; Wynne, 1991). Current science communication research emerged from dissatisfaction with the “deficit model” the surveys seemed to represent and has focused on a “dialogue” or “engagement” model in response (House of Lords, 2000; Ziman, 1991, 1992). But beyond various programmatic statements and caricaturing of “science literacy” as being defined by simple measurement of scientific facts, science communication research until recently has made little attempt to more robustly characterize science literacy. A few recent studies have started to redress this problem (Allum, Sturgis, Tabourazi, & Brunton-Smith, 2008; Bauer, Allum, & Miller, 2007; Kahan et al., 2012; Stoneman et al., 2013; Stoneman, Sturgis, & Allum, 2014), but the conversation is not yet widespread in the science communication community. Science education, on the other hand, has had a vigorous discussion of ways of defining and measuring science literacy, as both Davis & Russ and Blanco- Lopez et al. describe in such nice detail that I will not repeat here. Yet even their thoughtful surveys, with references to other reviews (especially DeBoer, 2000; Laugksh, 2000; Norris, 1997; Roberts, 2007), miss a key issue: the focus of science education almost exclusively on individual learners. A few efforts to explore family learning (Borun, Chambers, & Cleghorn, 1996) and the even broader concept of community learning (Roth & Calabrese Barton, 2004; Roth & Lee, 2002) point to the possibility of a more socially-oriented meaning of science literacy. Still, this plethora of meanings worries me: any attempt to definitively state the scope of science literacy will always be subject to differing conceptual frameworks. Future researchers will either have to choose particular meanings of science literacy or – more likely – abandon the label altogether. No single definition captures the richness of the ideas. One could argue that a similar situation holds with the multiple meanings of “framing,” for three of the articles here (Besley et al., Davis & Russ, and Feinstein) find the need to choose a particular definition of framing from among the diversity of definitions created by scholars. But I think their examples highlight the problem: while they have been careful to specify their meaning, they need to do so because most other researchers have missed the nuances and continue to muddy the waters about what “framing” means. The same situation holds, I fear, for science literacy, where failure to push hard on definitions means that important intellectual connections have been missed. For example, few researchers in either science education or science communication have sought to trace the key idea of “deficit model,” which is central to many discussions of public communication of science and technology. But seeking its origins is instructive, for the idea of deficit model was probably appropriated from the science education literature by those concerned with science in public. Missing that appropriation means missing the ideal of democracy that ties together the fields. One of the earliest references to the deficit model in the science communication literature appears in Wynne's (1991) summary of research projects established in response to the Royal Society's (1985) “Bodmer Report” on public understanding of science, where Wynne refers to “a simple ‘cognitive deficit' model of the public understanding of science.” Some years ago, I asked Wynne if he recalled where he got the term; he did not, but thought it likely that it had been used in meetings of the various research projects working on public understanding of science at the time. Some of those projects, such as ones involving Layton and Jenkins (Layton, Jenkins, MacGill, & Davey, 1993), emerged from the science education world, where the cognitive deficit idea was already in use. A 1987 report on mathematics education, for example, referred to “a ‘deficit' model of learning…reflecting what Paolo Freire (1970) referred to as a 'banking conception of education'” (Romberg and Stewart, 1987). The reference to Freire is key, for his conception of education was explicitly tied to Marxist ideals of overturning oppression of the masses, of seeking a better democratic society. As Davis and Russ point out (as do Baram-Tsabari and Osborne in their editorial in this special issue), both science education and science communication as fields were originally motivated by a commitment to democracy. But while the science communication field has kept a focus on broad political goals, science education has moved away from political concerns toward the individual learner. Feinstein is explicit: The Lippman-Dewey debate about democracy is not part of the science education discussion, and neither Lippman's Public Opinion nor Dewey's The Public and its Problems have been cited in this journal,2 highlighting the lack of interest in much of the science education community about political context. Yet, as Blanco-Lopez et al. detail, concerns about civic responsibility are fundamental to most debates about science literacy (or “competences,” the shift that Blanco-Lopez et al. describe). The failure of science education literature – and, indeed, most science communication literature, as well – to engage seriously with issues of democracy and democratic theory is a substantial failing. The only sustained work in this area comes from those in science studies who have theoretical apparatuses, such as “co- production,” for connecting public, science, and democracy (Jasanoff, 2014; Wynne, 2007 2008; Yearley, 2000). But the science studies community has few of the tools for implementation and assessment that science education and science communication offer. I will return to these issues of democracy below. As a field of study, “Education” focuses on changing people's conceptualizations. The goal of education is to change thought processes, systems of thought, schemas of critical thought and analysis. Parts of the “Education” field explore institutional and policy aspects of (primarily) the formal education world, in part because that field is a major institutional presence in modern societies. But the reason for exploring those institutional and policy issues is largely to see how they can better support the underlying goal of changing individual thought processes and conceptualizations. As a field of study, “Communication” focuses on social influence and persuasion. In this framing [!], communication looks at information exchange and the co-construction of meaning among participants in the communication process. Communication focuses on changing specific knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors, rather than the overall process and schemas of thought. As with the field of “Education,” some aspects of the “Communication” research field examine institutional and policy issues. In some cases, these inquiries are part of research traditions seeking to better support communication processes; in many other cases, institutional and policy inquiries are part of research traditions less concerned with the effect on individuals and more concerned with issues of social structure and governance. These attempts at defining the differences require, of course, over-generalizations. Some education scholars are motivated by concerns about democracy and its structures, rather than by concerns about individual learning. And some communication scholars focus on the effects of communication acts (including those in classrooms) on individuals. As noted earlier, the distinctions between the fields can also be traced to their practical origins: in schooling, in journalism, in public relations and marketing, in museum production. Almost as long as I've been in journalism…I've watched colleagues bristle and snort when told how important news media are to educating the public. I've gone into full-dismissal on such not the line we what is new – news – and we facts, and to some of their meaning and context to the public. people learn from journalism but almost a a but not the – be have to think like a got news to to people to Education is for important but not the issues of science literacy and the a of in these to the of definition are challenges when the same are used in different the most terms is the education focuses on the are with the that they are learning, in or cognitive ways & But to the communication is about public in the of science & 2011; & Besley et al. highlight this that is likely for example, those who they were to engage that they were to rather than engage in with their On the other hand, Besley et al.'s data that tied to and of are as for to participate in communication Feinstein is more about shared meaning, arguing that the two fields are again the of with The also means different things. For education researchers, social refers to the process by which individuals draw from social to their individual learning that Feinstein to But for science communication researchers (or at least those who the social social is a much broader by which knowledge is as the and processes of a more on the challenges by these articles do also how on multiple can more to a that both are much at Davis & Russ that on literature of both science communication and science education add to the idea of that is in both fields. add the issues of and context as ones that need to be if we are to the of the learner. work to be to the broader social meanings of the research or the ways that meaning might be a social process of among multiple of the they a that might the research from science education science communication, richness to the science communication of which literature has more to from the other these a these are about what the science education literature can learn from the science communication Feinstein science education researchers for to their we that science can people have at different and it is important for us to learn from those field who have these that he is new to science communication that he to but other in this interest in social context may be to the ways that the interest in individual learning in the science education literature could the science communication focus on social field is of science communication both scholars of science journalism and of learning science in informal environments for the value of science is only important is how to improve public and of and also researchers from the science studies world who take a more critical to science, seeking to how social processes both knowledge and, especially in public and what knowledge to be as what the to what will be Science education, is especially as some schools of thought continue to focus on a conception of knowledge focused on rather than a broader conception which the social of science as And while most science education researchers do focus on the individual a few (as noted do highlight the that learning can be in the family or the community et al., Roth & Calabrese Barton, 2004; Roth & Lee, all these issues together – science literacy, the difference between education and communication, the meanings of and understanding – is the of Davis & Russ for example, that we particular as education or communication because a may between theoretical and to these two fields to study those ways that could to a of how people to know science” But is that the Feinstein that and the of science literacy simply could not know to take part in policy discussions across a of For and the Feinstein) is the possibility of public debate individual this remains of the literature, focused on individual or on broader social processes, explicitly to find the tools for action to the world a better The of the deficit model in attention to to a much The of social in the among and learning. Many science communication scholars to at social using of public communication of science and as a for understanding of social and Wynne, 2014; Wynne, In that science communication researchers are than science education researchers to the that Feinstein to did not the possibility that groups could what individuals could it was in this possibility that found for the public that groups of and together could the of the and are often for their rather than their particular we take that The challenge for on this of is to we individual and better civic an in which substantial social do we to – and to – the inherent in the how might we do the of science education and science communication together the need to choose between more conversation will continue to on – and, one move forward – discussion on the of the

7Medical Professionalism in the New Millennium: A Physician CharterOpenAlex

Perspectives5 February 2002Medical Professionalism in the New Millennium: A Physician CharterFREEProject of the ABIM Foundation, ACP–ASIM Foundation, and European Federation of Internal Medicine*Project of the ABIM Foundation, ACP–ASIM Foundation, and European Federation of Internal Medicine*Author, Article, and Disclosure Informationhttps://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-136-3-200202050-00012 SectionsAboutVisual AbstractPDF ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail To our readers: I write briefly to introduce the Medical Professionalism Project and its principal product, the Charter on Medical Professionalism. The charter appears in print for the first time in this issue of Annals and simultaneously in The Lancet. I hope that we will look back upon its publication as a watershed event in medicine. Everyone who is involved with health care should read the charter and ponder its meaning.The charter is the product of several years of work by leaders in the ABIM Foundation, the ACP–ASIM Foundation, and the European Federation of Internal Medicine. The charter consists of a brief introduction and rationale, three principles, and 10 commitments. The introduction contains the following premise: Changes in the health care delivery systems in countries throughout the industrialized world threaten the values of professionalism. The document conveys this message with chilling brevity. The authors apparently feel no need to defend this premise, perhaps because they believe that it is a universally held truth. The authors go further, stating that the conditions of medical practice are tempting physicians to abandon their commitment to the primacy of patient welfare. These are very strong words. Whether they are strictly true for the profession as a whole is almost beside the point. Each physician must decide if the circumstances of practice are threatening his or her adherence to the values that the medical profession has held dear for many millennia.Three Fundamental Principles set the stage for the heart of the charter, a set of commitments. One of the three principles, the principle of primacy of patient welfare, dates from ancient times. Another, the principle of patient autonomy, has a more recent history. Only in the later part of the past century have people begun to view the physician as an advisor, often one of many, to an autonomous patient. According to this view, the center of patient care is not in the physician's office or the hospital. It is where people live their lives, in the home and the workplace. There, patients make the daily choices that determine their health. The principle of social justice is the last of the three principles. It calls upon the profession to promote a fair distribution of health care resources.There is reason to expect that physicians from every point on the globe will read the charter. Does this document represent the traditions of medicine in cultures other than those in the West, where the authors of the charter have practiced medicine? We hope that readers everywhere will engage in dialogue about the charter, and we offer our pages as a place for that dialogue to take place. If the traditions of medical practice throughout the world are not congruent with one another, at least we may make progress toward understanding how physicians in different cultures understand their commitments to patients and the public.Many physicians will recognize in the principles and commitments of the charter the ethical underpinning of their professional relationships, individually with their patients and collectively with the public. For them, the challenge will be to live by these precepts and to resist efforts to impose a corporate mentality on a profession of service to others. Forces that are largely beyond our control have brought us to circumstances that require a restatement of professional responsibility. The responsibility for acting on these principles and commitments lies squarely on our shoulders.–Harold C. Sox, MD, EditorPhysicians today are experiencing frustration as changes in the health care delivery systems in virtually all industrialized countries threaten the very nature and values of medical professionalism. Meetings among the European Federation of Internal Medicine, the American College of Physicians–American Society of Internal Medicine (ACP–ASIM), and the American Board of Internal Medicine (ABIM) have confirmed that physician views on professionalism are similar in quite diverse systems of health care delivery. We share the view that medicine's commitment to the patient is being challenged by external forces of change within our societies.Recently, voices from many countries have begun calling for a renewed sense of professionalism, one that is activist in reforming health care systems. Responding to this challenge, the European Federation of Internal Medicine, the ACP–ASIM Foundation, and the ABIM Foundation combined efforts to launch the Medical Professionalism Project (www.professionalism.org) in late 1999. These three organizations designated members to develop a “charter” to encompass a set of principles to which all medical professionals can and should aspire. The charter supports physicians' efforts to ensure that the health care systems and the physicians working within them remain committed both to patient welfare and to the basic tenets of social justice. Moreover, the charter is intended to be applicable to different cultures and political systems.PreambleProfessionalism is the basis of medicine's contract with society. It demands placing the interests of patients above those of the physician, setting and maintaining standards of competence and integrity, and providing expert advice to society on matters of health. The principles and responsibilities of medical professionalism must be clearly understood by both the profession and society. Essential to this contract is public trust in physicians, which depends on the integrity of both individual physicians and the whole profession.At present, the medical profession is confronted by an explosion of technology, changing market forces, problems in health care delivery, bioterrorism, and globalization. As a result, physicians find it increasingly difficult to meet their responsibilities to patients and society. In these circumstances, reaffirming the fundamental and universal principles and values of medical professionalism, which remain ideals to be pursued by all physicians, becomes all the more important.The medical profession everywhere is embedded in diverse cultures and national traditions, but its members share the role of healer, which has roots extending back to Hippocrates. Indeed, the medical profession must contend with complicated political, legal, and market forces. Moreover, there are wide variations in medical delivery and practice through which any general principles may be expressed in both complex and subtle ways. Despite these differences, common themes emerge and form the basis of this charter in the form of three fundamental principles and as a set of definitive professional responsibilities.Fundamental PrinciplesPrinciple of primacy of patient welfare. This principle is based on a dedication to serving the interest of the patient. Altruism contributes to the trust that is central to the physician–patient relationship. Market forces, societal pressures, and administrative exigencies must not compromise this principle.Principle of patient autonomy. Physicians must have respect for patient autonomy. Physicians must be honest with their patients and empower them to make informed decisions about their treatment. Patients' decisions about their care must be paramount, as long as those decisions are in keeping with ethical practice and do not lead to demands for inappropriate care.Principle of social justice. The medical profession must promote justice in the health care system, including the fair distribution of health care resources. Physicians should work actively to eliminate discrimination in health care, whether based on race, gender, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, religion, or any other social category.A Set of Professional ResponsibilitiesCommitment to professional competence. Physicians must be committed to lifelong learning and be responsible for maintaining the medical knowledge and clinical and team skills necessary for the provision of quality care. More broadly, the profession as a whole must strive to see that all of its members are competent and must ensure that appropriate mechanisms are available for physicians to accomplish this goal.Commitment to honesty with patients. Physicians must ensure that patients are completely and honestly informed before the patient has consented to treatment and after treatment has occurred. This expectation does not mean that patients should be involved in every minute decision about medical care; rather, they must be empowered to decide on the course of therapy. Physicians should also acknowledge that in health care, medical errors that injure patients do sometimes occur. Whenever patients are injured as a consequence of medical care, patients should be informed promptly because failure to do so seriously compromises patient and societal trust. Reporting and analyzing medical mistakes provide the basis for appropriate prevention and improvement strategies and for appropriate compensation to injured parties.Commitment to patient confidentiality. Earning the trust and confidence of patients requires that appropriate confidentiality safeguards be applied to disclosure of patient information. This commitment extends to discussions with persons acting on a patient's behalf when obtaining the patient's own consent is not feasible. Fulfilling the commitment to confidentiality is more pressing now than ever before, given the widespread use of electronic information systems for compiling patient data and an increasing availability of genetic information. Physicians recognize, however, that their commitment to patient confidentiality must occasionally yield to overriding considerations in the public interest (for example, when patients endanger others).Commitment to maintaining appropriate relations with patients. Given the inherent vulnerability and dependency of patients, certain relationships between physicians and patients must be avoided. In particular, physicians should never exploit patients for any sexual advantage, personal financial gain, or other private purpose.Commitment to improving quality of care. Physicians must be dedicated to continuous improvement in the quality of health care. This commitment entails not only maintaining clinical competence but also working collaboratively with other professionals to reduce medical error, increase patient safety, minimize overuse of health care resources, and optimize the outcomes of care. Physicians must actively participate in the development of better measures of quality of care and the application of quality measures to assess routinely the performance of all individuals, institutions, and systems responsible for health care delivery. Physicians, both individually and through their professional associations, must take responsibility for assisting in the creation and implementation of mechanisms designed to encourage continuous improvement in the quality of care.Commitment to improving access to care. Medical professionalism demands that the objective of all health care systems be the availability of a uniform and adequate standard of care. Physicians must individually and collectively strive to reduce barriers to equitable health care. Within each system, the physician should work to eliminate barriers to access based on education, laws, finances, geography, and social discrimination. A commitment to equity entails the promotion of public health and preventive medicine, as well as public advocacy on the part of each physician, without concern for the self-interest of the physician or the profession.Commitment to a just distribution of finite resources. While meeting the needs of individual patients, physicians are required to provide health care that is based on the wise and cost-effective management of limited clinical resources. They should be committed to working with other physicians, hospitals, and payers to develop guidelines for cost-effective care. The physician's professional responsibility for appropriate allocation of resources requires scrupulous avoidance of superfluous tests and procedures. The provision of unnecessary services not only exposes one's patients to avoidable harm and expense but also diminishes the resources available for others.Commitment to scientific knowledge. Much of medicine's contract with society is based on the integrity and appropriate use of scientific knowledge and technology. Physicians have a duty to uphold scientific standards, to promote research, and to create new knowledge and ensure its appropriate use. The profession is responsible for the integrity of this knowledge, which is based on scientific evidence and physician experience.Commitment to maintaining trust by managing conflicts of interest. Medical professionals and their organizations have many opportunities to compromise their professional responsibilities by pursuing private gain or personal advantage. Such compromises are especially threatening in the pursuit of personal or organizational interactions with for-profit industries, including medical equipment manufacturers, insurance companies, and pharmaceutical firms. Physicians have an obligation to recognize, disclose to the general public, and deal with conflicts of interest that arise in the course of their professional duties and activities. Relationships between industry and opinion leaders should be disclosed, especially when the latter determine the criteria for conducting and reporting clinical trials, writing editorials or therapeutic guidelines, or serving as editors of scientific journals.Commitment to professional responsibilities. As members of a profession, physicians are expected to work collaboratively to maximize patient care, be respectful of one another, and participate in the processes of self-regulation, including remediation and discipline of members who have failed to meet professional standards. The profession should also define and organize the educational and standard-setting process for current and future members. Physicians have both individual and collective obligations to participate in these processes. These obligations include engaging in internal assessment and accepting external scrutiny of all aspects of their professional performance.SummaryThe practice of medicine in the modern era is beset with unprecedented challenges in virtually all cultures and societies. These challenges center on increasing disparities among the legitimate needs of patients, the available resources to meet those needs, the increasing dependence on market forces to transform health care systems, and the temptation for physicians to forsake their traditional commitment to the primacy of patients' interests. To maintain the fidelity of medicine's social contract during this turbulent time, we believe that physicians must reaffirm their active dedication to the principles of professionalism, which entails not only their personal commitment to the welfare of their patients but also collective efforts to improve the health care system for the welfare of society. This Charter on Medical Professionalism is intended to encourage such dedication and to promote an action agenda for the profession of medicine that is universal in scope and purpose. Comments0 CommentsSign In to Submit A Comment Dr.Tanu Pramanik PhD(Social Psychology) Principal,Dr.Jogenananda Pramanik MD Executive Dean, Careers Abroad Institute School of Medicine, Mandeville, Jamaica.WI. Principal, Careers Abroad Institute School of Medicine,Hatfield, Mandeville, Manchester, Jamaica, WI.,16 October 2017 Humanise health care- A major concern workdwide The practice of medicine in the modern era is beset with unprecedented challenges in virtually all cultures and societies(1).We applauded current initiative to review and humanise health care.In the recent past,we responded to the editorial in British Medical Journal, emphasising impact of behavioural science curriculum in medical education.We are painfully concerned that most of our medical students are unfortunate that they did not get an opportunity to learn about behavioural science as a part of their curriculum during their medical school training program. They were never been exposed to the local community for a supervised health screening program with a mission to develop doctor-patient relationship and professional communication skills in real life scenarioRef: 1.Medical Professionalism in the New Millennium: A Physician Charter.Impact of behavioural science curriculum in medical education 2016; 355 doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i6262 (Published 13 December 2016)Cite this as: BMJ 2016;355:i6262Re: Humanising healthcare Author, Article, and Disclosure InformationAffiliations: Corresponding Author: Linda Blank, ABIM Foundation, 510 Walnut Street, Suite 1700, Philadelphia, PA 19106-3699; e-mail, [email protected]org.*This charter was written by the members of the Medical Professionalism Project: ABIM Foundation: Troy Brennan, MD, JD (Project Chair), Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts; Linda Blank (Project Staff), ABIM Foundation, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Jordan Cohen, MD, Association of American Medical Colleges, Washington, DC; Harry Kimball, MD, American Board of Internal Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and Neil Smelser, PhD, University of California, Berkeley, California. ACP–ASIM Foundation: Robert Copeland, MD, Southern Cardiopulmonary Associates, LaGrange, Georgia; Risa Lavizzo-Mourey, MD, MBA, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, Princeton, New Jersey; and Walter McDonald, MD, American College of Physicians–American Society of Internal Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. European Federation of Internal Medicine: Gunilla Brenning, MD, University Hospital, Uppsala, Sweden; Christopher Davidson, MD, FRCP, FESC, Royal Sussex County Hospital, Brighton, United Kingdom; Philippe Jaeger, MB, MD, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland; Alberto Malliani, MD, Università di Milano, Milan, Italy; Hein Muller, MD, PhD, Ziekenhuis Gooi-Noord, Rijksstraatweg, the Netherlands; Daniel Sereni, MD, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France; and Eugene Sutorius, JD, Faculteit der Rechts Geleerdheid, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Special Consultants: Richard Cruess, MD, and Sylvia Cruess, MD, McGill University, Montreal, Canada; and Jaime Merino, MD, Universidad Miguel Hernández, San Juan de Alicante, Spain. PreviousarticleNextarticle Advertisement FiguresReferencesRelatedDetailsSee AlsoCharter on Medical Professionalism: Putting the Charter into Practice Sadeq A. Quraishi and Ayesha N. Khalid Charter on Medical Professionalism: Putting the Charter into Practice Neil J. Smelser Charter on Medical Professionalism: Putting the Charter into Practice Charles M. Haskell Charter on Medical Professionalism: Putting the Charter into Practice Neil J. Smelser Charter on Medical Professionalism: Putting the Charter into Practice Donatella Lippi , GianFranco Gensini , and Andrea A. Conti Charter on Medical Professionalism: Putting the Charter into Practice Neil J. Smelser Charter on Medical Professionalism: Putting the Charter into Practice Jerome C. Arnett Jr. Charter on Medical Professionalism: Putting the Charter into Practice Sylvia L. Cruess and Richard L. Cruess Charter on Medical Professionalism: Putting the Charter into Practice Robert Feldman Charter on Medical Professionalism: Putting the Charter into Practice Walter J. McDonald Charter on Medical Professionalism: Putting the Charter into Practice Steven A. Wartman Charter on Medical Professionalism: Putting the Charter into Practice Jordan J. Cohen Charter on Medical Professionalism: Putting the Charter into Practice Yevgeniya Nusinovich Charter on Medical Professionalism: Putting the Charter into Practice Risa Lavizzo-Mourey Charter on Medical Professionalism: Putting the Charter into Practice Richard L. Cruess and Sylvia L. Cruess Charter on Medical Professionalism: Putting the Charter into Practice Christopher J. Lyons Professionalism and the Medical Student Nancy R. Angoff Providing High-Value, Cost-Conscious Care Christine K. Cassel Providing High-Value, Cost-Conscious Care Steven E. Weinberger Can the Practice of Retainer Medicine Improve Primary Care? Martin T. Donohoe Metrics Cited byA scoping review on the relationship between mental wellbeing and medical professionalismEmergency physician professionalism versus wellness: A conceptual modelSystem Citizenship: Re-Envisioning the Physician Role as Part of the Sixth Wave of ProfessionalismRECALMIN IV. Evolución de la actividad de las unidades de medicina interna del Sistema Nacional de Salud (2008-2021)RECALMIN IV. Evolution in the activity of internal medicine units of the National Health System (2008–2021)Should a patient’s socioeconomic status count in decisions about treatment in medical care? A longitudinal study of Norwegian doctorsValidity and reliability of the Professionalism Assessment Scale in Turkish medical studentsRelevance of Bone Marrow Biopsies for Response Assessment in US National Cancer Institute National Clinical Trials Network Follicular Lymphoma Clinical Trials“It really puts me in a bind”, professionalism dilemmas reported by Chinese residentsShared Decision MakingLos fundamentos del profesionalismo en medicinaImplementation of an Online Reporting System to Identify Unprofessional Behaviors and Mistreatment Directed at Trainees at an Academic Medical CenterNational Health Policy Leadership Program for General InternistsProfessionalism in dentistry: deconstructing common terminologyMedical in the Program during the a study about and the development of new and a of the for patient assessment of medical professionalism a setting how of medical professional are The of a a study on in beyond integrity and curriculum on informed toward persons with of or A into medical professionalism among medical students and new physicians in a of a based clinical program to reduce professional and social a in of the on Medical of Professionalism: A on on the of Physician care in a clinical and informed Professionalism in Medical and Medical of in of current and for the de las en de la de Physician to the of Health and with for medical school after in A and in Policy for of the A me do change and the different of a to Health for Health in the and ethical systems for but to The of Medical the and among of a Cancer the Relationships between the and and or to Care views and of professionalism mental health services patients and of at the of by of and The of A to Professional and to Clinical Practice and and Medical and Society Each A on Medical Society and is A the Role in a Leadership The de de and of medical professionalism for and de do a de of the of and in of a Medical School in Medicine of to Medical in Clinical A Professionalism in the of Clinical Care in Medical More Academic A by and Unprofessional on for Health Care and of the of Health for the and health patient and as an in Medical and and of role of social in the relationship between physician and professionalism of of Unprofessional by Physicians and Practice of in a based on clinical role of medical students training in respect for patient and a of the Care a and of for among medical and in medical a study of its with professionalism are the of Care and of Health for in Health a of Health Medical Society for Medicine Principles for the of Medicine in of Medical Professionalism among Medical in of a of in clinical learning on Medical Board as a for of Professionalism in Medical care needs of persons with and their A scoping of of Professional professionalism and a of from to of healthcare leaders in with physicians an of in Medical of in Medical a Medical students American Association and American College of on Professionalism

23The impact of COVID-19 on routine child immunisation in South Africa.PubMed

Sangiwe Moyo, Anushka Ashok, Laura Myers, et al.

BMC Public Health. 2024 Nov 7;24(1):3077. doi: 10.1186/s12889-024-20591-w.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted immunisation programs worldwide, reversing gains that had brought vaccine-preventable diseases largely under control. This study explored the impact of COVID-19 on the uptake of routine child immunisation services in South Africa. METHODS: We conducted qualitative research using in-depth interviews with 51 purposively selected parents/caregivers of children below the age of five who missed or delayed one or more scheduled immunisation doses in 2020-2022 and with 12 healthcare providers who provided public immunisation services during the pandemic. RESULTS: During the pandemic lockdowns, most caregivers perceived the risk of their child being infected with COVID-19 during a clinic visit as more salient than the risk of missing immunisation doses. Caregivers reported minimal exposure to routine immunisation communication, as well as shortages of routine vaccines for children at public health facilities, healthcare workers experienced anxiety and burnout. There was a post-pandemic shift to more active decision-making about immunisation, which had previously been an almost automatic behaviour, leading some caregivers to delay vaccinating their children. There was also evidence of a "bad vaccine" mental model among some caregivers regarding COVID vaccinations, which could lead to doubts about the safety of routine childhood vaccinations. DISCUSSION: The shift from default to active decision-making highlights a risk that routine immunisation will backslide in future pandemics. Governments should build resilient health systems at all levels and communicate clearly about the benefits and availability of RIs and the safety of vaccinations in general, alongside supply-side interventions. CONCLUSION: Routine immunisation is widely accepted in South Africa, driven by generational norms and provider recommendations. During the COVID-19 pandemic, many caregivers faced the dilemma of balancing COVID-19 exposure risk with the risk of their child developing a deadly VPD, leading to missed RI visits. This shift to active decision-making highlights a future pandemic risk. Governments should build resilient health systems and focus on understanding and engaging procrastinating and doubtful caregivers. Clear communication about RI benefits and vaccine safety is crucial, as misinformation can lead to distrust in new vaccines.

31Leveraging mHealth to Mitigate the Impact of COVID-19 in Black American Communities: Qualitative Analysis.PubMed

Kelly M Harris, Tilicia Mayo Gamble, Madelyn G Yoo, et al.

JMIR Hum Factors. 2023 Dec 22;10:e47294. doi: 10.2196/47294.

BACKGROUND: COVID-19 remains an ongoing public health crisis. Black Americans remain underrepresented among those vaccinated and overrepresented in both COVID-19 morbidity and mortality. Medical misinformation, specifically related to COVID-19, has exacerbated the impact of the disease in Black American communities. Communication tools and strategies to build relationships and disseminate credible and trustworthy diagnostic and preventative health information are necessary to improve outcomes and equity for historically oppressed populations. OBJECTIVE: As the initial phase of a larger mixed methods project to develop, pilot, and evaluate a mobile health (mHealth) intervention among a population at high risk for COVID-19 and cardiovascular comorbidities, this study sought to explore COVID-19 information behavior among Black Americans. Specifically, this study examined (1) preferences for COVID-19 education via mHealth, (2) barriers and facilitators to COVID-19 education and diagnostic testing and routine care for associated cardiovascular and respiratory comorbidities in the local community, and (3) key content for inclusion in a COVID-19 mHealth app. METHODS: This qualitative study used principles of community-based participatory research and information systems research to conduct 7 focus groups across 3 sites. Focus groups were audio recorded and transcribed for thematic analysis using an abductive approach. RESULTS: The study sample included 54 individuals across sites with a mean age of 50.24 (SD 11.76; range 20-71) years. Participants were primarily female (n=42, 78%) and Black (n=54, 100%) with varied education levels. Over half (n=29, 54%) of the participants were employed full-time, and nearly three-fourths (n=40, 74%) had household incomes <US $65,000. Participants used both Android (n=23, 43%) and iOS devices (n=29, 54%) and were "very comfortable" (n=37, 69%) using their mobile devices. Participants reported using a variety of sources for health information. Content-related preferences reported focus on visual presentation, user-friendly design, and privacy and highlighted the importance of community relevance, access, and community-specific content. Key barriers identified included health literacy-limiting app use, access to technology and information, and lack of trust. Increasing community relevance through community-specific messaging and the inclusion of Black providers were noted as facilitators that may increase credibility and trust. Key content identified included user-specific information such as where to get vaccines and tests, updated local COVID-19 data, travel protocols, information about long COVID-19 (post COVID-19 condition), comorbidities, frequently asked questions, and testimonials or personal stories. CONCLUSIONS: Increasing transparency and building trust are 2 key strategies that may improve the impact of health information messaging in Black communities. Focusing on content over context fails in the provision of critical health information and perpetuates health inequities by reinforcing systemic and structural racism. COVID-19 messaging must consider contextual information, patient needs and preferences, and patient information-seeking and information-search behaviors to establish trust and credibility, positively impact patient health outcomes, and improve health equity.

32Social Media Use and Oral Health-Related Misconceptions in Saudi Arabia: Cross-Sectional Study.PubMed

Rahaf Hamdan BinHamdan, Salwa Abdulrahman Alsadhan, Arwa Zohair Gazzaz, et al.

JMIR Form Res. 2025 Feb 10;9:e70071. doi: 10.2196/70071.

BACKGROUND: Social media has become a central tool in health communication, offering both opportunities and challenges. In Saudi Arabia, where platforms like WhatsApp, Snapchat, and Instagram are widely used, the quality and credibility of oral health information shared digitally remain critical issues. Misconceptions about oral health can negatively influence individuals' behaviors and oral health outcomes. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to describe the patterns of social media use and estimate the prevalence of oral health-related misconceptions among adults in Saudi Arabia. Additionally, it assessed the associations between engagement with oral health information, self-reported oral health, and the presence and count of these misconceptions. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was conducted over 10 weeks, targeting adults aged 15 years and older in Saudi Arabia. Data were collected from a total sample size (n=387) via a questionnaire distributed through targeted advertisements on Instagram, TikTok, Snapchat, and X (Twitter). The prevalence of oral health-related misconceptions was estimated using descriptive statistics, including counts and percentages. Chi-square tests described sociodemographic, social media engagement, and self-reported oral health. Logistic and Poisson regression analyses were used to assess associations between engagement and self-reported oral health with misconceptions. Logistic regression models provided odds ratios and adjusted odds ratios with 95% CI to assess the presence of oral health misconceptions. Poisson regression was used to calculate mean ratios and adjusted mean ratios (AMRs) for the count of misconceptions. RESULTS: WhatsApp (n=344, 89.8%) and Instagram (n=304, 78.9%) were the most frequently used social media platforms daily. Common oral health misconceptions included beliefs that "Pregnancy causes calcium loss in teeth" (n=337, 87%) and "Dental treatment should be avoided during pregnancy" (n=245, 63.3%). Following dental-specific accounts was significantly associated with lower odds of having any misconceptions (adjusted odds ratio 0.41, 95% CI 0.22-0.78) and a lower count of misconceptions (AMR 0.87, 95% CI 0.77-0.98). Conversely, trust in social media as a source of oral health information was associated with a higher count of misconceptions (AMR 1.16, 95% CI 1.02-1.31). CONCLUSIONS: Social media platforms are essential yet double-edged tools for oral health information dissemination in Saudi Arabia. Participants who followed dental-specific accounts had significantly lower misconceptions, while trust in social media as a source of information was linked to higher counts of misconceptions. These findings highlight the importance of promoting credible content from verified sources to combat misconceptions. Strategic collaborations with dental professionals are necessary to enhance the dissemination of accurate oral health information and public awareness and reduce the prevalence of oral health-related misconceptions.

37Learning about COVID-19: a qualitative interview study of Australians’ use of information sourcesOpenAlex

Deborah Lupton, Sophie Lewis

BACKGROUND: A multitude of information sources are available to publics when novel infectious diseases first emerge. In this paper, we adopt a qualitative approach to investigate how Australians learnt about the novel coronavirus and COVID-19 and what sources of information they had found most useful and valuable during the early months of the pandemic. METHODS: In-depth semi-structured telephone interviews were conducted with a diverse group of 40 Australian adults in mid-2020 about their experiences of the COVID-19 crisis. Participants were recruited through Facebook advertising. Detailed case studies were created for each participant, providing the basis of a thematic analysis which focused on the participants' responses to the questions about COVID-19-related information sources. RESULTS: Diverse sources of COVID-19-related information, including traditional media, online media and in-person interactions, were actively accessed, appraised and engaged with by participants. There was a high level of interest in COVID-19 information as people grappled with uncertainty, anxiety and feeling overwhelmed. Certain key events or experiences made people become aware that the outbreak was threatening Australia and potentially themselves. Most people demonstrated keen awareness that misinformation was rife in news outlets and social media sites and that they were taking steps to determine the accuracy of information. High trust was placed in health experts, scientists and government sources to provide reliable information. Also important to participants were informal discussions with friends and family members who were experts or working in relevant fields, as well as engaging in-person in interactions and hearing from friends and family who lived overseas about what COVID-19 conditions were like there. CONCLUSION: A constantly changing news environment raises challenges for effective communication of risk and containment advice. People can become confused, distressed and overwhelmed by the plethora of information sources and fast-changing news environment. On the other hand, seeking out information can provide reassurance and comfort in response to anxiety and uncertainty. Clarity and consistency in risk messaging is important, as is responding quickly to changes in information and misinformation. Further research should seek to identify any changes in use of and trust in information sources as time goes by.

39Combatting the Funding Effect in Science: What’s Beyond Transparency?OpenAlex

Sheldon Krimsky

INTRODUCTION Professional ethics in government and in fields such as law, engineering, and accounting have evolved to protect the public from employee abuses and misconduct. Among those protections are rules that define, manage, or proscribe conflicts of interest. The term of has been defined Thompson as set of conditions in which professional judgment concerning a primary interest (such as a patient's welfare or the validity of research) tends to be unduly influenced a secondary interest (such as financial gain). (1) Before 1980, little if any attention was given to conflicts of interest in science and medicine. Beginning around that time, a major shift was taking place in sector boundaries affecting the media, finance, banking, medicine, and academia. The missions of distinctive sectors of our society were blended or superimposed onto one another. This has led to a fusion of sector goals and the creation of hybridized institutions. As examples, the entertainment and news sectors have, at times, become indistinguishable; banks and investment houses have begun adopting each other's roles. And, more to the point of this Article, universities have been investing in for-profit enterprises started their faculty. The new partnership between academia and business was reinforced the passage of the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980. (2) Under the new law, universities were accorded intellectual property rights from any discoveries that were made under government grants. Business and academia became intertwined through a mutually reinforcing body of legislative acts fostering technology transfer. These changes were the cultural counterpart to what was happening in the biological sciences when species barriers were broken with the discovery of recombinant DNA molecule technology. (3) The well-established biological boundaries that distinguished different life forms and the special features that distinguished socioeconomic institutions were disappearing. The new blended institutions of academia raised questions about changes in the normative framework that guided research practice and the commercial ventures within academic-clinical medicine. Mark Cooper argues that the commercialization of the university affects the faculty's choice of research problems by shifting the focus of academic life scientists to a greater interest in research that generates patents or commercializable findings and away from research based on scientific curiosity and potential contributions to scientific theory. (4) The Bayh-Dole Act, along with a series of new federal laws, state economic development initiatives, and Presidential executive orders supporting university-industry partnerships, provided incentives for the development of a new class of entrepreneurial faculty who held onto their academic positions while setting up independent companies. This Article examines the evolution of the public's concerns over conflicts of interest (COIs) in science (including medical science and the practice of medicine). I discuss the ethical foundations of COIs and the remedies that have been proposed government, academic institutions, journals, and professional societies to address these concerns. The funding effect in science, an outcome in which commercial sponsorship of research influences its findings, will be explored. The role of transparency as an antidote to conflicts of interest will be examined. Also, the Article will identify initiatives designed to prevent and proscribe conflicts of interest rather than accepting them as inevitable and adopting transparency as the primary response. The thesis of this Article is that disclosure of a conflict of interest is a necessary but not sufficient response to address the most serious problems arising from blending academic science with commerce. I shall argue that when the autonomy of the scientist, the independence of the university, or the public's trust in academic research is compromised, conflicts of interest should be prohibited. …

40Ten Recommendations for Closing the Credibility Gap in Reporting Industry-Sponsored Clinical Research: A Joint Journal and Pharmaceutical Industry PerspectiveOpenAlex

Bernadette Mansi, Juli Clark, Frank David, et al.

The credibility of industry-sponsored clinical research has suffered in recent years, undercut by reports of selective or biased disclosure of research results, ghostwriting and guest authorship, and inaccurate or incomplete reporting of potential conflicts of interest.1Bruyere O. Kanis J.A. Ibar-Abadie M.E. et al.The need for a transparent, ethical, and successful relationship between academic scientists and the pharmaceutical industry: a view of the Group for the Rest of Ethics and Excellent in Science (GREES).Osteopor Int. 2010; 21: 713-722Crossref PubMed Scopus (9) Google Scholar, 2Pyke S. Julious S.A. Day S. et al.The potential for bias in reporting of industry-sponsored clinical trials.Pharm Stats. 2011; 10: 74-79Crossref PubMed Scopus (14) Google Scholar In response, many pharmaceutical companies have integrated best practices and recommendations from groups such as the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE), the Good Publication Practice guidelines, the Committee on Publication Ethics, the EQUATOR (Enhancing the QUAlity and Transparency Of health Resources) Network, and the Medical Publishing Insights and Practices (MPIP) initiative into their internal policies and standard operating procedures.3Strahlman E. Rockhold F. Freeman A. Public disclosure of clinical research.Lancet. 2009; 373: 1319-1320Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (11) Google Scholar, 4PhRMA Principles on Conduct of Clinical Trials: Communication of Clinical Trial Results.http://www.phrma.org/sites/default/files/105/042009_clinical_trial_principles_final.pdfGoogle Scholar, 5AmgenAmgen Guidelines for Publications.http://www.amgen.com/about/amgen_guidelines_for_publications.htmlGoogle Scholar, 6AstraZenecaTransparency of Trial Information.http://www.astrazeneca.com/Responsibility/Research-ethics/Clinical-trials/Transparency-of-trial-informationGoogle Scholar, 7GlaxoSmithKlineReports and publications, Public policies, Disclosure of Clinical Trial Information.http://www.gsk.com/reportsandpublications-policies.htmGoogle Scholar, 8Johnson & JohnsonTransparency in Our Business Activities.http://www.jnj.com/connect/about-jnj/our-citizenship/transparency-in-our-business-activities/transparency+in+our+business+activitiesGoogle Scholar, 9MerckMerck Guidelines for Publication of Clinical Trials and Related Works.http://www.merck.com/research/discovery-and-development/clinical-development/Merck-Guidelines-for-Publication-of-Clinical-Trials-and-Related-Works.pdfGoogle Scholar, 10PfizerConducting Ethical Research – Registration, Disclosure, and Authorship.http://www.pfizer.com/research/research_clinical_trials/registration_disclosure_authorship.jspGoogle Scholar However, a credibility gap remains: some observers, including some journal editors and academic reviewers, maintain a persistent negative view of industry-sponsored studies.11Angell M. Industry-sponsored clinical research: a broken system.JAMA. 2008; 300: 1069-1071Crossref PubMed Scopus (187) Google Scholar Given industry's pivotal role in the development of new therapies, further improvements in research conduct and disclosure are needed across the industry-investigator-editor enterprise to restore confidence in industry-sponsored biomedical research. In 2008, the MPIP was founded by members of the pharmaceutical industry and the International Society for Medical Publication Professionals to elevate trust, transparency, and integrity in publishing industry–sponsored studies through education and creation of a discussion forum among industry research sponsors and biomedical journals.12Clark J. Gonzalez J. Mansi B. et al.Enhancing transparency and efficiency in reporting industry-sponsored clinical research: report from the Medical Publishing Insights and Practices initiative.Int J Clin Pract. 2010; 64: 1028-1033Crossref PubMed Scopus (8) Google Scholar, 13www.mpip-initiative.orgGoogle Scholar In 2010, the MPIP convened a roundtable of 23 journal editors and industry representatives (see the “Acknowledgments” section for a list of MPIP participants) to characterize the persistent and perceived credibility gap in industry-sponsored research and identify approaches to resolve it. Attendees agreed that there have been important improvements in the conduct and reporting of industry-sponsored studies during the past 5 years, but several opportunities remain for additional improvement. Attendees reached consensus on a top 10 list of recommendations (Table), intended to serve as a call to action for all stakeholders—authors, journal editors, research sponsors, and others—to enhance the quality and transparency of industry-sponsored clinical research reporting. Although framed in the context of industry sponsorship, many of these recommendations would enhance the credibility of clinical research publications in general, regardless of the funding source.TABLETop 10 Recommendations for Closing the Credibility Gap in Reporting Industry-Sponsored Clinical Research 1Ensure clinical studies and publications address clinically important questions2Make public all results, including negative or unfavorable ones, in a timely fashion, while avoiding redundancy3Improve understanding and disclosure of authors' potential conflicts of interest4Educate authors on how to develop quality manuscripts and meet journal expectations5Improve disclosure of authorship contributions and writing assistance and continue education on best publication practices to end ghostwriting and guest authorship6Report adverse event data more transparently and in a more clinically meaningful manner7Provide access to more complete protocol information8Transparently report statistical methods used in analysis9Ensure authors can access complete study data, know how to do so, and can attest to this10Support the sharing of prior reviews from other journals Open table in a new tab Many perceive a mismatch between the research hypotheses of some industry-sponsored studies and the needs of the public and practicing clinicians to improve patient health. The best way to elevate the credibility of industry-sponsored clinical research is to ensure that such research is designed to answer important clinical and scientific questions while respecting regulatory requirements that may influence certain aspects of study design. Credibility is compromised when clinical research is intended for marketing purposes rather than advancing scientific and medical knowledge. Sponsors could enhance transparency and credibility by better explaining to journals,14Clark S. Horton R. Putting research into context – revisited.Lancet. 2010; 376: 10-11Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (32) Google Scholar the biomedical community, and the public the decision-making process underlying the research endeavor. For example, sponsors could be more transparent in describing how external input and involvement from the academic community were obtained to inform study design (eg, by acknowledging participants in protocol development, advisory boards, and other roles). Many industry sponsors have committed to disclosing the results of all clinical studies through recognized trial registries. Complete and transparent disclosure is required by law in many regions, fulfills the ethical obligation to trial participants, and is critical to the advancement of science. The ability to cross-reference trial registries, results databases, and all related publications informs the scientific community whether studies are completed or are under way and discourages selective reporting. Several recent articles have highlighted that there is a persistent need for better disclosure of clinical trial results, irrespective of study sponsorship.15Lehman R. Loder E. Missing clinical trial data.BMJ. 2012; 344: d8158Crossref PubMed Scopus (43) Google Scholar, 16Prayle A.P. Hurley M.N. Smyth A.R. Compliance with mandatory reporting of clinical trial results on ClinicalTrials.gov: cross sectional study.BMJ. 2011; 344: d7373Crossref Scopus (215) Google Scholar, 17Ross J.S. Tse T. Zarin D.A. et al.Publication of NIH funded trials registered in ClinicalTrials.gov: cross sectional analysis.BMJ. 2011; 344: d7292Crossref Scopus (285) Google Scholar Whereas results from well-designed studies that are negative, confirmatory, inconclusive, or less immediately relevant to practicing clinicians can be particularly challenging to publish, these manuscripts can contribute toward the progress of science, may open the door for future research, and can prevent redundancy. Sponsors and authors should strive to disseminate them in appropriate venues, provided the data are put in context and the study limitations are clearly stated. This may require editors and publishers to explore and implement novel publication approaches well suited to these sorts of reports. Some possible approaches could include journals dedicated to these studies (perhaps in open-access format), abridged article formats more suitable to them, and/or specific reviewing mechanisms focused on scientific validity as opposed to “impact.” Many of these potential solutions are currently being explored and developed by journals and publishers.12Clark J. Gonzalez J. Mansi B. et al.Enhancing transparency and efficiency in reporting industry-sponsored clinical research: report from the Medical Publishing Insights and Practices initiative.Int J Clin Pract. 2010; 64: 1028-1033Crossref PubMed Scopus (8) Google Scholar Finally, sponsors and authors should avoid redundant or duplicate publications. As part of this effort, sponsors could support editors' educational efforts to combat plagiarism.18Fighting plagiarism [editorial].Lancet. 2008; 371: 2146Google Scholar Recent advances by academia, journals, and organizations such as the Institute of Medicine and ICMJE have improved processes for disclosing authors' potential conflicts of interest. Consensus among journal editors remains elusive on some specifics, such as the time frame for the reporting period and minimum amounts for financial reporting. These debates notwithstanding, however, editors and sponsors should support the use of the updated ICMJE Conflict of Interest Reporting Form19ICMJEUniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals: Ethical Considerations in the Conduct and Reporting of Research: Conflicts of Interest.www.icmje.org/ethical_4conflicts.htmlGoogle Scholar and continue dialogue regarding its improvement. Furthermore, the same conflict of interest reporting standards should be applied uniformly to all authors, regardless of the source of research funding.20Lanier W.L. Bidirectional conflicts of interest involving industry and medical journals: who will champion integrity?.Mayo Clinic Proc. 2009; 84: 771-775Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (41) Google Scholar To further enhance disclosure transparency and reduce the administrative burden on authors, all parties should also explore the feasibility of developing a centralized, publicly accessible disclosure database.21Steinbrook R. Online disclosure of physician-industry relationships.N Engl J Med. 2009; 360: 325-327Crossref PubMed Scopus (30) Google Scholar Specific issues that need to be addressed include responsibility for quality control and maintenance, privacy/public data access issues, data ownership, and database funding. If these issues could be resolved, a digital database would provide an efficient and effective means of promoting transparent reporting. Ineffective or inappropriate reporting can diminish the value and credibility of clinical research. Authors who are well versed in study design, conduct, and analysis may lack formal writing training or knowledge of reporting guidelines such as the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) requirements.22CONSORTThe CONSORT statement.www.consort-statement.org/consort-statementGoogle Scholar The experiences of editors and industry publication professionals suggest there is a large “information gap” in this regard, particularly related to authors' knowledge of key aspects of authorship that directly affect the quality and credibility of submitted manuscripts. Journals and research sponsors should collaborate to educate researchers and other groups who conduct or contribute to publication development, whether they work in industry, academia, or other venues. Best practice guides should be widely disseminated to industry and academic authors. For example, the MPIP's Authors' Submission Toolkit23Chipperfield L. Citrome L. Clark J. et al.Authors' Submission Toolkit: a practical guide to getting your research published.Curr Med Res Opin. 2010; 26: 1967-1982Crossref PubMed Scopus (45) Google Scholar can help authors navigate the manuscript development and submission process, and EQUATOR's author resource library can provide guidance on research reporting.24EQUATORResources for authors of research reports.www.equator-network.org/resource-centre/authors-of-research-reports/authors-of-research-reportsGoogle Scholar On the basis of author and editor feedback, additional materials or educational programs may be needed to supplement existing guidelines; editors and industry representatives should collaborate to identify specific areas of unmet need and develop educational resources to address them. Finally, editors have an additional opportunity and responsibility to expand their academic educational efforts and drive education within and among journals to encourage the harmonization of editorial policies and reviewer standards in line with evolving best practices. Research sponsors have improved their credibility significantly by incorporating into their policies and standard practices5AmgenAmgen Guidelines for Publications.http://www.amgen.com/about/amgen_guidelines_for_publications.htmlGoogle Scholar, 6AstraZenecaTransparency of Trial Information.http://www.astrazeneca.com/Responsibility/Research-ethics/Clinical-trials/Transparency-of-trial-informationGoogle Scholar, 7GlaxoSmithKlineReports and publications, Public policies, Disclosure of Clinical Trial Information.http://www.gsk.com/reportsandpublications-policies.htmGoogle Scholar, 8Johnson & JohnsonTransparency in Our Business Activities.http://www.jnj.com/connect/about-jnj/our-citizenship/transparency-in-our-business-activities/transparency+in+our+business+activitiesGoogle Scholar, 9MerckMerck Guidelines for Publication of Clinical Trials and Related Works.http://www.merck.com/research/discovery-and-development/clinical-development/Merck-Guidelines-for-Publication-of-Clinical-Trials-and-Related-Works.pdfGoogle Scholar, 10PfizerConducting Ethical Research – Registration, Disclosure, and Authorship.http://www.pfizer.com/research/research_clinical_trials/registration_disclosure_authorship.jspGoogle Scholar definitions of authorship and contributorship developed by ICMJE, the American Medical Writers Association, the European Medical Writers Association, and other professional bodies. Importantly, these definitions explicitly recognize the positive role that professional writers can play in manuscript development, provided they are appropriately acknowledged as authors or contributors (in accordance with ICMJE guidelines) and their names, affiliations, and potential conflicts of interest are disclosed.25Norris R. Bowman A. Fagan J.M. et al.International Society for Medical Publication Professionals (ISMPP) position statement: the role of the professional medical writer.Curr Med Res Opin. 2007; 23: 1837-1840Crossref PubMed Scopus (24) Google Scholar All parties must continue to work toward zero tolerance of ghostwriting (defined as failure to acknowledge individuals who helped write the paper) and guest authorship (defined as inclusion of individuals as authors who do not qualify because they do no meet ICMJE or journal criteria for authorship). Sponsors should ensure that employees' contributions are fully disclosed, using the same standards for employees and nonemployees. Such disclosure should be done without applying quotas of the maximum number of industry-employed authors or prespecified ratios of industry-employed to independent authors that would inappropriately exclude individuals who qualify for authorship or acknowledgment. For their part, journals need to eliminate any biases against manuscripts that have industry authors. Finally, sponsors, academic institutions, and editors should reinforce collaboratively the unacceptability of ghostwriting and guest authorship. There is an unmet need for better and more uniform reporting of adverse events. Although “no clinically significant adverse events” and “no unexpected adverse events” are common shorthand in journal articles, such phrases lack clinical relevance, particularly regarding rare adverse events that may be important for agents used over a long period in large populations. Editors, sponsors, and clinicians would benefit from consensus on more uniform reporting guidelines that clearly specify the type and format of adverse event data provided in the manuscript and/or supplemental material.26Ionnidis J.P.A. Evans S.J.W. Gøtzsche P.C. et al.Better reporting of harms in randomized trials: an extension of the CONSORT statement.Ann Intern Med. 2004; 141: 781-788Crossref PubMed Scopus (1103) Google Scholar In addition, journals may need to revisit their manuscript length policies if they wish this information to be present in the main document. Finally, editors and sponsors must educate authors on the need to balance the strength of adverse event claims vs the features and limitations of trial design appropriately. In a study that is not powered to assess rare adverse events, it is more appropriate to qualify the findings (eg, “additional severe adverse events were not detected in this short, small trial”) than to make broad statements that could mislead readers (eg, “generally safe and well tolerated”). Some journals request submission of a clinical study protocol to validate methods and end points used in submitted manuscripts, screen for analysis or reporting errors, confirm that the manuscript matches the protocol, and verify that any protocol amendments do not affect study conduct or integrity inappropriately.27Chan A.W. Bias, spin and misreporting: time for full access to trial protocols and results.PLoS Med. 2008; 5: e230Crossref PubMed Scopus (117) Google Scholar In addition, several journals post online complete protocols or excerpts together with the published manuscript to provide greater transparency and additional context to readers. Journals should describe their protocol submission requirements and publication policies in their instructions for authors and apply them irrespective of study sponsorship. Public dissemination of protocols by journals raises several practical issues that require further discussion. To foster development of effective policies on protocol disclosure, sponsors should engage with journals on the appropriate format and organization and the extent and legitimacy of redactions to protect proprietary intellectual property or other concerns. In addition, because study protocols are frequently amended as research progresses, disclosure of different versions in multiple public venues may create confusion and redundancy. Stakeholders should explore whether a single repository is feasible and meets the objective of transparency. Most journals assess statistical methods as a routine part of the peer review process, often relying on established reporting guidelines such as CONSORT.22CONSORTThe CONSORT statement.www.consort-statement.org/consort-statementGoogle Scholar Sponsors should ensure that authors provide adequate information about the chosen methods based on the prespecified study design and parameters, and how they were applied to the final data set. To enhance credibility, authors need to adhere to existing reporting standards, and editors have a responsibility to uniformly enforce these requirements at their journals. The issue of statistical analysis credibility warrants further discussion among editors, authors, and research sponsors to explore how journals can develop policies that raise standards for all clinical publications, independent of the financial support or authorship. Singling out industry-sponsored trials for additional statistical validation28Fontanarosa P.B. Flanagin A. DeAngelis C.D. Reporting conflicts of interest, financial aspects of research, and role of sponsors in funded studies.JAMA. 2005; 294: 110-111Crossref PubMed Scopus (116) Google Scholar unfairly implies that these studies' analyses are inherently deficient and deserve heightened scrutiny. The credibility of industry-sponsored research is threatened when authors cannot explain or defend key details of study design and analysis or verify access to raw data. Sponsors' letters of agreements with authors should clearly define authors' data access rights and expectations and their responsibility to understand and attest to them if required by journals. Industry sponsors need internal policies and procedures that facilitate data access for investigators and authors, and journals should unambiguously state their submission and publication policies on data access. Journals and sponsors should consider that data access needs may also differ, on study For example, the of data access and feasible for all authors may not be the same for a study as for a The MPIP's Authors' Submission authors, when a manuscript to to explore the of a of the prior manuscript and to that have been L. Citrome L. Clark J. et al.Authors' Submission Toolkit: a practical guide to getting your research published.Curr Med Res Opin. 2010; 26: 1967-1982Crossref PubMed Scopus (45) Google Scholar Although the practice is not uniformly at this some journals encourage the sharing of prior reviews on the that it transparency, and the quality of Given that there is no consensus among editors on whether to prior this should be by journals. journals that prior reviews must their policies clearly and their peer on how best to use them, and authors must be about how journals prior reviews into their decision-making These top 10 recommendations several opportunities to enhance the transparency and credibility of industry-sponsored clinical research. Sponsors must continue to best practice guidelines, them into their policies and and work with other and medical companies and professional organizations to ensure uniform should also drive author education efforts by guidelines and Editors must ensure their policies are transparent, well and uniformly applied irrespective of author or study sponsorship, and should their and role in promoting best practices.

47Scientific Misconduct: From Salami Slicing to Data FabricationOpenAlex

Stefania M. Mojon‐Azzi, Daniel S. Mojon

The aim of peer-reviewed biomedical journals is to publish accurate, new and relevant information on which researchers, medical doctors or the larger public can rely and build upon. Authors, reviewers and editors of such journals have responsibility for monitoring and maintaining high ethical standards and for trying to avoid any form of misconduct. This is not an easy task and several studies suggest that research results are not always conveyed accurately.This problem is not new to science. Some illustrious scientists such as Galileo Galilei and Albert Einstein misrepresented their work in order to attain more convincing experimental results. Other famous scientists such as Claudius Ptolemy plagiarized the work of others. But it was only in 1981 that scientific misconduct came for the first time to public attention with the disclosure of four acts of misconduct occurring in the US [1]. Soon other cases appeared in several countries followed by the need to define misconduct and to develop guidelines and policies against it. Meanwhile many countries and large research institutions have introduced some type of scientific misconduct policy. However, too many countries and research organizations still lack such policies.Definitions of scientific misconduct differ from country to country and from one institution or government agency to another. But independent of definition, scientific misconduct includes at least the fabrication (reporting of experiments never performed), falsification (misrepresentation of results), and plagiarism (taking the writings or ideas of another and representing them as one's own) of data or ideas. Honest errors or honest differences in interpretation or judgments of data are excluded from most definitions of scientific misconduct [1]. Often also other serious deviations from accepted research practice are included like irresponsible authorship, duplicate publication, salami slicing, bias and conflict of interest and/or intentional erroneous use of statistical methods.The incidence of scientific misconduct is difficult to determine and depends among other factors upon its definition. In comparison with the total number of individuals engaged in research the documented cases of scientific dishonesty are few in number. However, due to the difficulty of discovering and the reluctance of researchers to pursue cases of misconduct, the reported cases could only represent the tip of a large iceberg [2].Even if the incidence of scientific misconduct might not be high, it is still high enough to warrant attention. One recent example from the US involved a former professor of ophthalmology at the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary and Harvard Medical School who admitted to having fabricated 21 chromatograms for a National Institute of Health grant application [3].In order to prevent and fight such misconduct it is important to understand its causes. Reasons for scientific misconduct include career pressure, desire for peer recognition, necessity of publications for continuation or promotion of an academic appointment, monetary and professional rewards resulting from research output, deadlines, expectations and disappointment towards the produced results and lack of information in regard of ethical issues.To secure scientific integrity two different lines should be followed: prevention and control [4]. Many of the measures implemented in several countries simultaneously achieve both goals. Measures against scientific dishonesty often include the definition of scientific misconduct and/or good scientific practice, the publication of guidelines, the education of scientists in scientific ethics, the creation of independent organizations that deal with misconduct in science and are easily accessible for whistleblowers, researchers, editors and institutions, the supervision and monitoring of the research personnel by their research project leaders and the performance of data audits. Figure 1 summarizes the most important forms of scientific misconduct and presents selected measures against it.The costs of acts of scientific misconduct are carried by the involved individuals and institutions as well as by the society as a whole in the form of ruined careers, lost reputation, long and expensive investigations, useless or even harmful diagnostic and therapeutic procedures, and the loss of public trust in science.The goal of research must be to increase knowledge and to develop new ideas and understanding with important effects on all of society. Because of its crucial role, the importance of integrity in research cannot be overestimated. Today's research is only possible if scientists can build on the work of others and if the public trust in the integrity of scientists is maintained. Therefore, it is essential for maintaining scientific excellence and for keeping the public's trust to develop a culture that ensures that scientific publications are valid representations of the truth.

49Ethics for Disseminating Health-Related Information on YouTubeOpenAlex

Olena Zimba, Armen Yuri Gasparyan, Ainur B. Qumar

1/4 https://jkms.orgSocial media platforms are increasingly employed worldwide to disseminate publicly available information and promote the interests of diverse groups of online users. 1 Students, researchers, clinicians, and patients are all exposed to a variety of such platforms to search through and satisfy their academic and societal needs.As a prime example, researchers' works are increasingly covered by online news outlets and video-sharing platforms, which translate sophisticated scientific achievements into comprehendible information, thereby popularizing science. 2 The extent of social media use depends on language preferences and socioeconomic factors which are taken into account when reaching out to users in different countries and regions. 3The ease of posting and speed of disseminating information on social media enables communication between post creators and viewers in online and offline formats.Social media posts often include audio and visual materials supported with language translation tools to maximize audience engagement. 4Some of the publicly posted comments, such as those on X (formerly Twitter) and YouTube, are quantitatively weighed, contributing to aggregate alternative metrics.These metrics generated by Altmetric.comhelp track trends and distinguish the most influential scholarly articles, particularly in the early post-publication period.While current health research and practice are increasingly relying on ubiquitous social media, increasing public awareness of their uses, strengths, and limitations and creating an infrastructure for posting reliable, evidence-based, and ethically sound information is increasingly important.Social media posts are often generated by public and institutional representatives who aim to engage their followers and interested users by providing feedback, commenting, and sharing information.Health-related information can be linked to anecdotal empiric experience, peer-reviewed scholarly articles, practice guidelines, and promotional medical and pharmaceutical content.Viewer discretion is often advisable since the disseminated information may contain sensitive and copyright-protected materials.Notably, public health researchers embrace social media, particularly YouTube, for study recruitments and interventions in chronic diseases, mental health, substance abuse, and infections. 5n most cases, YouTube posts on patient-sensitive and identifying information require accompanying ethics notes such as ethics approval or exemption from full ethics review.

53Understanding the Social Mechanism of Cancer Misinformation Spread on YouTube and Lessons Learned: Infodemiological StudyOpenAlex

Ho Young Yoon, Kyung Han You, Jung Hye Kwon, et al.

BACKGROUND: A knowledge gap exists between the list of required actions and the action plan for countering cancer misinformation on social media. Little attention has been paid to a social media strategy for disseminating factual information while also disrupting misinformation on social media networks. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to, first, identify the spread structure of cancer misinformation on YouTube. We asked the question, "How do YouTube videos play an important role in spreading information about the self-administration of anthelmintics for dogs as a cancer medicine for humans?" Second, the study aimed to suggest an action strategy for disrupting misinformation diffusion on YouTube by exploiting the network logic of YouTube information flow and the recommendation system. We asked the question, "What would be a feasible and effective strategy to block cancer misinformation diffusion on YouTube?" METHODS: The study used the YouTube case of the self-administration of anthelmintics for dogs as an alternative cancer medicine in South Korea. We gathered Korean YouTube videos about the self-administration of fenbendazole. Using the YouTube application programming interface for the query "fenbendazole," 702 videos from 227 channels were compiled. Then, videos with at least 50,000 views, uploaded between September 2019 and September 2020, were selected from the collection, resulting in 90 videos. Finally, 10 recommended videos for each of the 90 videos were compiled, totaling 573 videos. Social network visualization for the recommended videos was used to identify three intervention strategies for disrupting the YouTube misinformation network. RESULTS: The study found evidence of complex contagion by human and machine recommendation systems. By exposing stakeholders to multiple information sources on fenbendazole self-administration and by linking them through a recommendation algorithm, YouTube has become the perfect infrastructure for reinforcing the belief that fenbendazole can cure cancer, despite government warnings about the risks and dangers of self-administration. CONCLUSIONS: Health authorities should upload pertinent information through multiple channels and should exploit the existing YouTube recommendation algorithm to disrupt the misinformation network. Considering the viewing habits of patients and caregivers, the direct use of YouTube hospital channels is more effective than the indirect use of YouTube news media channels or government channels that report public announcements and statements. Reinforcing through multiple channels is the key.

54How does fake news spread? Understanding pathways of disinformation spread through APIsOpenAlex

Lynnette Hui Xian Ng, Araz Taeihagh

What are the pathways for spreading disinformation on social media platforms? This article addresses this question by collecting, categorising, and situating an extensive body of research on how application programming interfaces (APIs) provided by social media platforms facilitate the spread of disinformation. We first examine the landscape of official social media APIs, then perform quantitative research on the open-source code repositories GitHub and GitLab to understand the usage patterns of these APIs. By inspecting the code repositories, we classify developers' usage of the APIs as official and unofficial, and further develop a four-stage framework characterising pathways for spreading disinformation on social media platforms. We further highlight how the stages in the framework were activated during the 2016 US Presidential Elections, before providing policy recommendations for issues relating to access to APIs, algorithmic content, advertisements, and suggest rapid response to coordinate campaigns, development of collaborative, and participatory approaches as well as government stewardship in the regulation of social media platforms. 在社交媒体平台上传播虚假信息的途径是什么?本文通过收集、分类并定位大量关于社交媒体平台提供的应用程序编程接口(API)如何促进虚假信息传播的研究来解决这个问题。我们首先研究了官方社交媒体的API的现状，然后对开源代码库GitHub和GitLab进行了定量研究，从而了解这些API的应用模式。通过检查代码库，我们将开发人员对 AP I的使用分为官方和非官方两类，并进一步开发了一个四个阶段组成的的框架，描述了在社交媒体平台上传播虚假信息的途径。我们进一步强调该框架中的各阶段是如何在2016年美国总统选举期间激活的，然后就API访问、算法内容、广告等相关问题提供政策建议，并建议快速响应以协调竞选、发展合作、以及在社交媒体平台监管中的参与式方法和政府管理。 “Fake news” is commonly used to refer to news that is false and that could mislead readers/viewers. Under the umbrella term “fake news,” there are three common categories: “disinformation,” “misinformation,” and “malinformation” (Shu et al., 2020). These three categories are segregated in terms of their intent. “Disinformation” intends to deceive, and hence common techniques involve targeting profiles and fabricating content. “Misinformation” does not have malicious intent; examples include urban legends and genuinely false information. “Malinformation” has an intent to inflict personal harm: hate speech and harassment fall under this category. In this article, we examine “disinformation,” which has the goal of deceiving people. We study the use of code repositories to access Platforms through APIs for spreading disinformation on the platforms and examine how actors with malicious intent can utilise the platforms for their purposes. We used our findings to inform platforms and governments on pathways of disinformation spread and how to address the issues identified. We consider the following goals of an actor with an intent to spread disinformation in a network: (1) dissemination of a message across the network; (2) information amplification on desired topics; (3) planting/altering the views of large groups of users. As an “actor” operating tools and technologies to spread disinformation on social media, to achieve these goals, one needs to: (1) join an organic network of users, so the actor's message reaches real users; and (2) hide one's trace to avoid detection and suspicion, which would reduce the effectiveness of the message. Fake news on social media platforms has become a contentious public issue as social media platforms offer third parties various digital tools and strategies to spread disinformation to achieve self-serving economic and political interests and distort and polarise public opinion. We study disinformation campaigns in the context of social media platforms. While social media platforms are revenue-generating businesses that promote user account and content creation, they have inevitably led to malicious actors spreading fake news. To achieve a successful campaign, an actor must perform a series of actions on the platform, some of which depend on others. A sequential combination of these actions characterises a pathway. This study on the pathways for spreading disinformation seeks to identify specific methods and stages of spreading disinformation. This will facilitate identifying new procedures to ensure the reliability and accuracy of disseminated information and increase the significant transparency of artificial intelligence- (AI-) driven data collection and algorithmic mechanisms for scenarios like online content recommendation. The study also profiles the risks and threats of AI-curated and generated content, such as a generative pre-trained transformer (GPT-3) (Brown et al., 2020) and generative adversarial networks (GANs) (Goodfellow et al., 2014). While revealing the ethical issues involved in and online content, the study will develop policy and to online disinformation. In the following we pathways of disinformation a programming interfaces (APIs) can used to data the platforms information to the We social media APIs and to understand how APIs facilitate disinformation. We the platforms disinformation We then further information open-source code repositories GitHub and GitLab to understand how use APIs. 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This article has social media APIs and the various of actions code use to these APIs to content social media platforms. a data of these code repositories, we the following (1) the of repositories to before to (2) the in the of repositories with terms and (3) code repositories are of for the platforms. by further the code of the code repositories relating to social media APIs, we the mechanisms code repositories use to with social media platforms official APIs. We that code repositories use official platforms APIs, and the programming is This an of the the social media and the code development By characterising of these we a the pathways for content and content collection on social media platforms a The framework of network creation, content and information this some of the goals that actors with an intent to spread disinformation on social media platforms achieve dissemination of across information amplification and on desired planting/altering the views of large groups of users, and to spread their We the application of the of through the study of the 2016 US Presidential and the stages of the framework that were activated during this This a application of the framework in this The framework can inform research to the techniques actors use across and platforms through and the framework can further to examine pathways for the spread of disinformation and actions of the which on the spread of to include the use of and of content and examine that to use for the spread of fake news. We further policy recommendations platforms and governments can to the digital landscape and a online information has not for also for as a can a to the the spreading of false could to as through the through to that are to their such as in and in the through and to such as the which could disinformation to the of of in the information they In the digital information through online social We that this study a of the spread of disinformation on social media platforms through a framework by the usage of APIs by code We further that the findings of this study are to the research and policy and to a of the pathways by which fake news spread on social media platforms to further to identify and address disinformation. The is not for the content of information by the to the for the

65Research on the effectiveness and strategies of new media in promoting voluntary blood donation from a public health perspective in the post-pandemic era.PubMed

Jieqiu Weng, Yongzhu Xu, Chengbing Xie, et al.

Front Public Health. 2024 Oct 14;12:1436909. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2024.1436909. eCollection 2024.

OBJECTIVE: This study explores the effectiveness of new media in enhancing public enthusiasm for voluntary blood donation in the post-pandemic era and proposes effective publicity strategies to promote the sustainability and healthy development of blood donation activities. METHODS: A questionnaire survey was widely used to collect public opinions and attitudes toward voluntary blood donation. The sample data underwent rigorous reliability and validity analysis to ensure authenticity and reliability. Statistical methods such as correlation analysis and regression analysis were employed to deeply investigate the underlying relationships between factors like new media publicity, emotional value, social recognition, convenience, information reliability, and willingness to donate blood voluntarily. Based on these analyses, a research model was constructed, and relevant hypotheses were verified through empirical methods. RESULTS: The study found that new media publicity may be associated with increasing the willingness of the public to voluntarily donate blood. Survey participants indicated that they were more likely to consider donating blood after exposure to new media publicity. Among these factors, the emotional value and content conveyed by the publicity appeared to be particularly important. Additionally, our research revealed that social recognition, the convenience of blood donation, and the reliability of promotional information seemed to have a direct impact on the public's willingness to donate blood. At the same time, these factors may indirectly promote actual blood donation behavior by enhancing the public's emotional resonance and acceptance of blood donation. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that new media may play multiple positive roles in promoting voluntary blood donation. Based on these findings, we propose a series of strategic recommendations, including further optimizing publicity content, striving to enhance the public's emotional resonance, improving the reliability of promotional information, and enhancing service convenience. These suggestions aim to potentially raise public awareness and willingness to participate in voluntary blood donation, providing a scientific basis and strong support for the promotion of voluntary blood donation in the post-epidemic era.

68Building partnerships with communities for biodiversity conservation: lessons from Asian mountainsOpenAlex

Charudutt Mishra, Juliette Young, Matthias Fiechter, et al.

Applied ecology lies at the intersection of human societies and natural systems. Consequently, applied ecologists are constantly challenged as to how best to use ecological knowledge to influence the management of ecosystems (Habel et al. 2013). As Hulme (2011) has pointed out, to do so effectively we must leave our ivory towers and engage with stakeholders. This engagement is especially important and challenging in areas of the world where poverty, weak institutions and poor governance structures conspire to limit the ability of local communities to contribute to biodiversity conservation. These communities often bear disproportionate costs in the form of curtailed access to natural resources, ecosystem services, and developmental programmes, and also suffer wildlife-caused damage, including injuries or loss of human life, and economic and psychological impacts (Madhusudan & Mishra 2003). It is well-recognized that conservation efforts in large parts of the world historically have been perceived to be discriminatory by local people (Mishra 2016). The need for engagement with local communities is therefore embedded in the 2020 Aichi biodiversity targets and is widely thought to be critical to the success of conservation efforts. However, although the need for engagement is clear, as ecologists and practitioners we often have little formal training in how we should engage with local communities and how we can recognize the pitfalls and opportunities provided by developing genuine partnerships. The practical challenges of achieving effective engagement are considerable (Agrawal & Gibson 1999; Waylen et al. 2010, 2013), and such forays are fraught with difficulties and ethical considerations (Chan et al. 2007). When they are done badly, conservation interventions can damage relationships and trust, and lead to serious injustice to local people and setbacks for ecological outcomes (Duffy 2010). Much has been written on knowledge exchange and participatory research approaches (e.g. Reed et al. 2014 and references therein). This Practitioner's Perspective seeks to focus on the next logical step: the elements that practitioners and researchers need to consider when engaging with communities to effect conservation. Engagement around the management of protected areas has been discussed and formalized (e.g. Dudley 2008). Considerable literature has also emerged, particularly from Africa, on the use and co-management of natural resources, commonly referred to as community-based natural resource management or CBNRM (e.g. Fabricius 2004; Roe, Nelson & Sandbrook 2009; Child & Barnes 2010). There have been attempts to draw general principles for CBNRM (e.g. Thakadu 2005; Gruber 2010). In the related field of community-based conservation, however, while there have been efforts to draw lessons (e.g. Berkes 2004), little exists in terms of frameworks or guidelines for effectively working with local communities to effect biodiversity conservation in multi-use landscapes (Mishra 2016). The eight principles for community-based conservation outlined here (Fig. 1) build on ideas developed in fields as diverse as applied ecology, conservation and natural resource management, community health, social psychology, rural development, negotiation theory, and ethics (see Mishra 2016). They have been developed, challenged and tested through 20 years of community experience and our own research on the endangered snow leopard Panthera uncia and its mountain ecosystems, in South and Central Asia. We suspect that with contextual adaptations, their relevance for applied ecologists and practitioners may be universal. The work of the Snow Leopard Trust and its partner organizations, the Nature Conservation Foundation (India), Snow Leopard Conservation Foundation (Mongolia), Snow Leopard Foundation (Kyrgyzstan), Snow Leopard Foundation (Pakistan), and Shan Shui (China), has been spread over Asia's important snow leopard habitats. Snow leopards have a tendency to kill livestock, and communities can bear a heavy cost from these depredation events (Mishra et al. 2016; Mishra, Redpath & Suryawanshi 2016). As a consequence, snow leopards often suffer from retribution killing across their range. We sought to develop programmes with communities, so that conditions for wild snow leopards and their prey were improved, whilst the impact of predation by snow leopards on pastoralists’ livelihoods was minimized, leading to a cessation in retribution killing (Mishra et al. 2003). The objective therefore was to build partnerships with communities to improve both biodiversity and social outcomes. We use the term community to denote a hamlet or village, a collection of individuals or households who identify themselves as a group, live in the same area, and share systems of local resource use, traditions and governance (Mishra 2016). The principles outlined here were arrived at through personal reflection and conceptualization by one of us (CM) who started applied research in snow leopard landscapes in 1996, piloted and implemented community-based efforts in the Indian Himalaya since 1998, and has closely worked with and advised field teams in the other four countries since 2008. The authors have been collaborating with each other and with our range-country partner teams. Our community-based work and the formalization of these principles have been influenced by our research findings as well as literature from diverse fields including applied ecology, conservation and natural resource management, community health, social psychology, rural development and negotiation theory (e.g., Fisher, Ury & Patton 1991; Karp 1996; Portes 1998; Colman 1999; Cohen 2001; Smutko 2005; Jones & Wells 2007; Atlee et al. 2009; Gerdes & Segal 2011; Gambrill 2012; Mishra 2016). The development of effective engagement with communities can be a daunting task. We provide a set of eight general principles that should be considered when working in such situations, characterized by the acronym ‘PARTNERS’ (Fig. 1, Table 1). Build strong relationships with local people through sustained field presence and immersion Train and hire local people in the team Assess rather than assume threats to biodiversity Design and evaluate contextually appropriate interventions to address specific threats Be aware of gender issues in community and team Reach out to the majority of the community, but work with relatively small groups Invest in social capital Ignore social and cultural contexts when implementing programmes Focus solely on programme participants forgetting to build in a role for the entire community in the intervention portfolio Create new groups within the community for programme operations, instead of traditional ones Focus solely on community land for landscape species conservation Treat community members with respect Seek to create an equal partnership Engage in open and honest communication Take note of societal divisions and individual differences within the community View local communities as recipients of aid or providers of services Use societal divisions and individual differences within the community to advance the conservation agenda Disclose your purpose and clearly communicate goals Reiterate your aims of beneficence and non-malfeasance Maintain transparency whenever making choices, such as the selection of households for a pilot intervention, or hiring of community members as programme staff Interact with a broad set of community members, not just leaders or local programme coordinators Withhold information from communities, especially about potential negative impacts of interventions Make decisions and choices without consulting the community Hire local champions as paid programme staff Employ transparent, objective criteria or fair standards in negotiations with communities Discuss potential interventions individually with community members before formal negotiation with the community Involve community members in the design of interventions Record details and nuances of a community-based intervention through written agreements Include mechanisms that allow to revisiting and making changes to signed agreements Build in incentives and tangible stakes Bring third-party mediation if negotiations are not moving forward Haggle or bargain for a bigger piece of the pie Push the community to make urgent decisions Withhold information Walk away from the community if negotiations are not moving forward Try to look at issues from the community's perspective Take both rational and emotional aspects into account when making decisions Make the effort to increase our capability for empathy Assume that most community members – like most other people – are decent and intelligent Forget that our own behaviour can often be irrational or irresponsible Walk away because of perceived inaction on part of the community, rather than catalyzing action Monitor threats, interventions and impact Adapt and improve interventions whenever possible or necessary Help communities when they have urgent needs unrelated to biodiversity Look for ways to assist communities in biodiversity unrelated needs with interventions that are linked to biodiversity Assume that threats and priorities remain stable Forget that problems are opportunities to improve conservation interventions Make promises and create expectations that one cannot keep Get directly involved in biodiversity-unlinked interventions if the team lacks the necessary expertise Collaborate proactively with government officials and share expertise Facilitate cooperation and communication between various government sectors Act as a bridge between local communities and wildlife managers Compromise and reconcile, while being prepared to oppose the government when warranted View the government as anathema for community-based conservation Assume there is no role for the practitioner in policy formulation, management planning and implementation Effective community-based programmes rely on strong and resilient relationships between practitioners and local people. These relationships are built through sustained presence in the field, not occasional meetings and workshops. Sustained presence helps generate trust, useful contextual knowledge, acts as an early warning system to identify and tackle new and emerging issues, and increases the support for conservation programmes by local communities. People often choose to participate in such programmes not just for personal gain, but because of the relationships with practitioners and with the programme through long-term contact. Failure to invest the time and effort involved in long-term relationship-building can lead to limited community support. In an Eastern Himalayan region, for example, in the absence of such presence and relationship building, we were unsuccessful in starting programmes that could have obviously benefited communities, while in other sites, similar programmes were readily embraced by communities who were familiar with us (Mishra 2016). Likewise, many communities where people had initially appeared reluctant, came forward to develop conservation partnerships with us over time as we built relationships with them. Even when a relationship is established, if people are pushed for urgent decisions or action without sufficient trust in the practitioners, this is usually a deal-breaker in community-based efforts. It is of course impossible to be present everywhere. However, in our experience, having a base in a relatively large community in the focal landscape, combined with periodic visits to other communities, has been useful in building strong relationships. Training and hiring individuals drawn from local communities helps strengthen local presence, bringing in more knowledge, and adding value to the team, but this does not absolve the practitioner from the need for immersion in the communities. Conservation interventions must address specific threats to biodiversity, and need to be developed in a way that is appropriate for the local community and local conditions. This means considering the inherent complexity of communities (Waylen et al. 2010), and asking whether the interventions are: (i) founded on a scientific understanding of the and to address the at the appropriate to local knowledge and to gender and other to the and to the local social capital and example, if wild prey are limited by (e.g. Mishra et al. having efforts is to an increase in their while may be implemented in an community with a strong of such as in et al. be to in a where wildlife is protected out of a of et al. In one of our programme to the of our interventions and the in from the local communities to the programme for many years our efforts. Our research that had relatively negative wild to et al. We Snow Leopard in the region, our programme at et al. 2016). is important that a role is for the entire community or its and not just for directly We have this by having interventions within a community, or having elements in the intervention that can the entire community (e.g. community development It is also useful to recognize that this is a partnership and considering may outcomes rather than implementing strong the of the communities or practitioners on should be of knowledge with of and information with community members on issues as understanding in wildlife damage and most can be in developing knowledge and of the challenges for community-based interventions is how to when effective interventions need to be contextually that specific that are are can the of new and with local people must be honest and and local communities need to be as equal and rather than of In one a community in that had been with us for more than a and not to its conservation It out that our team members had that if the community members were not in the we could choose to work with community in the This negotiation to a from had the community members over the next we to the and our partnership with this community is the that this community considered a programme to perceived was an important for is not about and but the psychological local communities, or have a considerable influence on The lies in the of local people when their behaviour may or (e.g. killing a snow our us local communities as the of aid in the there be no in the This is a as the starting of community-based conservation is the of (Mishra 2016). It is and to consider that in many the communities are the in this in the form of their potential support for biodiversity conservation that we are It is important to be aware of local divisions and within and between local communities as these can have However, such divisions and within the community for conservation is both and in the practitioners need to be especially aware that or perceived or can be beneficence and non-malfeasance form important guidelines of community-based work about our goals and It is the to clearly the conservation and of the and of choices are and their potential may be – including or members must be provided with opportunities in a or individually to and share their and the transparency that the community choices and on and community systems. As part of a is important to consider with communities as so that lessons can be and approaches When choices are to be such as households be involved in a pilot or from the local community should be to support or the conservation is important to make choices the choices should not be by the practitioner but community often than the disproportionate influence of one or more individuals from the community is the implementation of interventions at the community There is often the to hire such individuals as a but this is not usually a The potential influence of local champions on the community to when for their time and effort if Effective negotiation the intervention between the community and the practitioner is to community-based conservation efforts. a form of negotiation where both from relatively and a can be and the relationship between communities and may also be as usually information et al. is to an by having and open and on the of the rather than their negotiation also over The of partnerships and interventions on the to people over the design and implementation of the In the absence of community members may to instead of considering costs and We have to the intervention ideas individually with community members before making formal and negotiations with the entire ideas individually with people who are not to be can also be to on the and one and how to address the practitioner for of the ideas in this way can make the intervention more generate support and especially people have been sought in in away may make if the best potential is than the to a in community-based conservation, this is often not a there is no communication and relationship building must There be when the negotiations do not forward time and such situations, third-party for by a from community in the same region, may be and are in When there is broad on the need and of intervention, and of and is signed agreements the tangible stakes for the community and increase the written in a and should also mechanisms to to and of conservation behaviour that the programme is to is one of the most critical for effective community It the and understanding of the and emotional of & Segal researchers to the from the perspective of the community and helps that while conservation may be critical for may a part in the of local people. can us in of interventions be more effective in a and us a understanding of that may at be irrational or done – or – in a Our ability to with local people and can be through immersion in a community, relationships to more and and is necessary because of the in conservation opportunities and also opportunities for both the interventions and the relationship with the The relationship building with communities and practitioners must not to interventions before trust is However, the community to an intervention, this must be done while implementing community efforts is important as for course therefore is an important of for the of community-based programmes in achieving biodiversity outcomes the need for and Conservation practitioners often need to to to important community such as and that are not linked directly with biodiversity conservation. to in such there is no practitioners can consider the costs and and a aspects while making example, how serious is the or the is serious to have on the ability of community members to participate in conservation programmes, or if serious issues are could be example, our teams to assist communities with and when an in or when a large of in or when damage in parts of and (Mishra 2016). useful – not appropriate – is to whether the or the needs are or to assist the community with issues unrelated to biodiversity is important from a perspective (e.g. a or a and could also strengthen the relationship how to is more when the is for example, access to for the communities. issues important in and need to be with the community, including the and resource needs of the our expertise of and the of expectations is an important part of community-based conservation. programmes can especially create expectations community members that the conservation practitioner not be to expectations are to in communities with the practitioner has a long-term biodiversity interventions that lead to of and social capital could be to that conservation is embedded within such as economic and and local development Even at the local and the role of strengthen the role of local communities in conservation, is to work closely with to create and These need to decisions that economic development needs with of biodiversity, and strengthen the of communities in such This changes in including the of policy appropriate management planning and a system in support of community-based conservation, and the of practitioners in policy planning and can conservation needs and possible and efforts for biodiversity and human with the government can also improve the and of community-based efforts. In our conservation is about the between the need to biodiversity and the need for development and support of the we improve the of the in negotiations in of working with can be with being being or by the same that are for or them. In practitioners need to both with and oppose the government when warranted in the of biodiversity conservation. and negotiation can this Our ability to our ecological knowledge to improve the management of biodiversity and natural is in large part on the way we with local communities across the In most is not appropriate or to or and communities. more effective is to from genuine long-term built on respect and In the of for example, when to a snow leopard we were to to the of the local community to because we had a relationship with (Mishra 2016). We not have to invest time to build a partnership or trust from We have outlined here we consider to be the principles to ecologists and practitioners build such partnerships. The principles (Fig. 1, Table 1) have us to build strong and long-term relationships with communities to develop interventions on strong such to to programmes to to & Mishra programmes to cost of depredation events Redpath & Suryawanshi to improve et al. and on community land (Mishra et al. 2016). killing of snow leopards and of their prey have or been in our programme (see Mishra 2016). we have wild and use by snow leopards in of our (Mishra et al. 2016). It is the and challenges with community-based partnerships can be there are challenges to to There is no so engagement needs to be a long-term if is to be This on the of communities that can be with This can be by having the long-term of communities of the and themselves with support from practitioners as and when an has us to our work to communities in countries over of snow leopard on community engagement can be a way of bringing applied ecological with community experience to the management of natural and conservation of However, to be effective needs to be done – through genuine partnerships of practitioners and community built on the principles outlined in this This is where our can assist The principles are a of critical aspects of community – the practical and the ethical – that have relevance for biodiversity conservation. They have from long-term to 20 partnerships with communities in landscapes across Our work a of land and example, our teams have worked with communities influenced by with strong traditions of and with a that the and use of wildlife et al. 2016). our partner communities have been of that the theory of and of We have been to work effectively in both the of threats that our programmes have has also been from traditional killing of snow leopards to predation to emerging and threats such as in snow leopard habitats. We that in to have and biodiversity practitioners consider each of the principles with necessary contextual while building conservation the ideas and the principles with support from and and the of the with support from authors to the and for We are to Nelson and the Conservation for their support for our for Nature has been a long-term of the work that to this and the We also the for the management for community livelihoods & snow leopard The of the not have been possible without the long-term work and of our partner by and have not been because this does not Mishra is involved in ecological and community-based conservation and management, and cooperation and policy the snow leopards and of Asia. was the of the Snow Leopard Trust from to to work on of the endangered snow leopard as a of the is the for the Snow Leopard aims to and support for community-based conservation of the endangered snow leopard various various and local is a social working at the for and has experience of working with practitioners and from fields on the understanding and management of conservation and the social and outcomes of conservation Redpath is a conservation at the of over years as a with to to and conservation a of systems in and Asia.

74A scoping review of wildfire smoke risk communications: issues, gaps, and recommendationsOpenAlex

Morgan H. Vien, Susan L. Ivey, Hollynd Boyden, et al.

BACKGROUND: Wildfire smoke exposure has become a growing public health concern, as megafires and fires at the wildland urban interface increase in incidence and severity. Smoke contains many pollutants that negatively impact health and is linked to a number of health complications and chronic diseases. Communicating effectively with the public, especially at-risk populations, to reduce their exposure to this environmental pollutant has become a public health priority. Although wildfire smoke risk communication research has also increased in the past decade, best practice guidance is limited, and most health communications do not adhere to health literacy principles: readability, accessibility, and actionability. This scoping review identifies peer-reviewed studies about wildfire smoke risk communications to identify gaps in research and evaluation of communications and programs that seek to educate the public. METHODS: Four hundred fifty-one articles were identified from Web of Science and PubMed databases. After screening, 21 articles were included in the final sample for the abstraction process and qualitative thematic analysis. Ten articles were based in the US, with the other half in Australia, Canada, Italy, and other countries. Fifteen articles examined communication materials and messaging recommendations. Eight papers described communication delivery strategies. Eleven articles discussed behavior change. Six articles touched on risk communications for vulnerable populations; findings were limited and called for increasing awareness and prioritizing risk communications for at-risk populations. RESULTS: This scoping review found limited studies describing behavior change to reduce wildfire smoke exposure, characteristics of effective communication materials and messaging, and communication delivery strategies. Literature on risk communications, dissemination, and behavior change for vulnerable populations was even more limited. CONCLUSIONS: Recommendations include providing risk communications that are easy-to-understand and adapted to specific needs of at-risk groups. Communications should provide a limited number of messages that include specific actions for avoiding smoke exposure. Effective communications should use mixed media formats and a wide variety of dissemination strategies. There is a pressing need for more intervention research and effectiveness evaluation of risk communications about wildfire smoke exposure, and more development and dissemination of risk communications for both the general public and vulnerable populations.

81Sex and Gender Disparities in the COVID-19 PandemicOpenAlex

Jewel Gausman, Ana Langer

Journal of Women's HealthVol. 29, No. 4 CommentaryFree AccessSex and Gender Disparities in the COVID-19 PandemicJewel Gausman and Ana LangerJewel GausmanWomen & Health Initiative, Department of Global Health and Population, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts.Search for more papers by this author and Ana LangerAddress correspondence to: Ana Langer, MD, Women & Health Initiative, Department of Global Health and Population, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 651 Huntington Avenue, FXB Building 6th Floor Office 643B, Boston, MA 02115 E-mail Address: [email protected]Women & Health Initiative, Department of Global Health and Population, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts.Search for more papers by this authorPublished Online:17 Apr 2020https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2020.8472AboutSectionsPDF/EPUB Permissions & CitationsPermissionsDownload CitationsTrack CitationsAdd to favorites Back To Publication ShareShare onFacebookXLinked InRedditEmail In the case of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, sex-disaggregated data suggest that fewer women are dying from the disease than men.1 However, taking this observation at face value oversimplifies the biological, behavioral, and social and systemic factors that may cause differences to emerge with regard to how women and men experience both the disease and its consequences. As governments react with swift and severe measures in their ongoing fight to control the pandemic's spread, it is important to understand how these actions may disproportionately increase the risks for women both directly and indirectly with regard to sex and gender.Pregnant women are often among the most vulnerable groups during public health emergencies. In some cases, pregnant women face increased biological susceptibility to adverse health outcomes, as in the case of some respiratory infections. With other emergent coronaviruses, such as those responsible for severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and middle east respiratory syndrome (MERS), pregnant women who became infected were found to be more likely than nonpregnant women to experience severe complications.2 It is still too early to tell whether this will be the case with COVID-19.In the ongoing pandemic, other factors may have a ripple effect that put women at increased risk even if the disease itself does not. As made clear during the 2014 Ebola outbreak, the consequences of large-scale infectious disease outbreaks on uninfected pregnant women can be dire. Routine prenatal care appointments, if not interrupted or discontinued, may put women at increased risk of exposure to the virus. Overwhelmed hospitals struggling to function with staff and supply shortages may not be able to provide the high quality of care that all pregnant women and their newborns deserve, let alone respond to emergency obstetric complications. Furthermore, there is also a risk that life-saving treatments or vaccines will be denied to pregnant women over concern for fetal safety or a lack of data.3,4The fear of infection, concern for the well-being of friends and loved ones, uncertainty, disruption, and social isolation that have become part and parcel of daily life for many around the world will undoubtedly have profound effects on mental health on the population at large, but being pregnant during a global pandemic is likely to be even more frightening for many women. Although containment strategies, such as those that require women to deliver without a companion present, including partners and doulas, that have already been put into place in some cities in the United States,5 or those that separate newborns from their mothers immediately after birth if the mother is infected with COVID-196 may be clinically important to reduce transmission, they may also have profound short- and long-term mental health implications for women. Among women who have young children, previous research in Ethiopia, India, and Vietnam found that women who experience family-related stressful life events, such as illness or death within the household and financial uncertainty, are more likely to experience episodes of severe mental distress.7 With the ongoing need to social distance, family and community networks may struggle and pregnant and postpartum women may feel even more vulnerable and isolated over a lack of social support.The adverse effects of the pandemic in relation to women's reproductive health are not limited to pregnancy or motherhood. As movement restrictions are put into place, supply chains are disrupted, and businesses are shuttered, some women may be at increased risk of unintended pregnancy should it become difficult to obtain their regular contraceptive method or emergency contraceptives, if needed. Furthermore, some states within the United States have begun to impose restrictions on certain medical procedures that they deem to be elective, including abortion, suggesting they must be delayed until after the pandemic is over.8 Spikes in domestic violence during times of crisis are another area of grave concern for women's health, and as governments continue to put into place more extreme measures to enforce social distancing, for some women, more time at home may mean more time spent with an abusive partner. Fewer social interactions may also mean less accountability for perpetrators and fewer opportunities for others to intervene.Gender-related factors may also increase the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on women globally. Women constitute a disproportionately high percentage of caregivers in both the formal and informal sectors.9 A large proportion of frontline health care professionals (nurses, community health workers, health technicians, etc.) is women who face a higher risk of infection, morbidity, and death as a result of their profession.9 At the same time, women more frequently serve as the primary caregivers within a household, which may further increase their risk of exposure. In the United States, 65% of unpaid family caregivers are estimated to be women and 80% of them care for someone aged 50 years or older.10 Outside of their caregiving role, women are overrepresented in the informal employment sector. In low-and middle-income countries, two-thirds of women who work do so as part of the informal economy with limited access to health care for themselves and their families.9 Containment and mitigation policies that limit women's ability to perform their duties without offering effective alternatives, such as closing of daycare facilities for their children or not providing paid sick leave, may result in unnecessary exposure to disease and increased family vulnerability.It is urgent that we adopt a gender lens to study the pandemic and its effects, including the policies and actions that are put into place at the global, country, and local levels. This may be especially important in disadvantaged populations and resource-poor communities, where women are especially vulnerable. The public health community must ensure that existing health and social services meant to support women in the face of their unique needs do not disappear in lieu of the all-encompassing focus on stopping the pandemic. Furthermore, we argue that special attention needs to be paid to ensure that informal caregivers are supported, informed, and protected. To avoid making existing gender disparities larger as a result of the pandemic, a special body at the U.S. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention is urgently needed to track sex disaggregated data and analyze policies related to COVID-19 using a gender lens.Author Disclosure StatementNo competing financial interests exist.Funding InformationNo funding was received for this article.References1. Cai H. Sex difference and smoking predisposition in patients with COVID-19. Lancet Respir Med 2020;pii: S2213-2600(20)30117-X. Medline, Google Scholar2. Favre G, Pomar L, Musso D, Baud D. 2019-nCoV epidemic: What about pregnancies? Lancet 2020;395:e40. Crossref, Medline, Google Scholar3. Rasmussen SA, Smulian JC, Lednicky JA, Wen TS, Jamieson DJ. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and pregnancy: What obstetricians need to know. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2020;pii: S0002-9378(20)30197-6. Medline, Google Scholar4. Weigel G. Novel coronavirus "COVID-19": Special considerations for pregnant women. Available at: https://www.kff.org/womens-health-policy/issue-brief/novel-coronavirus-covid-19-special-considerations-for-pregnant-women/?utm_source=Global+Health+NOW+Main+List Accessed March 17, 2020. Google Scholar5. Caron C, Syckle KV. Laboring alone: Some hospitals bar partners because of virus fears. The New York Times. 2020. Google Scholar6. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Practice advisory: Novel coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19). Available at: https://www.acog.org/Clinical-Guidance-and-Publications/Practice-Advisories/Practice-Advisory-Novel-Coronavirus2019?IsMobileSet=false Accessed March 13, 2020. 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83Connecting Through Technology During the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic: Avoiding “Zoom Fatigue”OpenAlex

Brenda K. Wiederhold

Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social NetworkingVol. 23, No. 7 EditorialConnecting Through Technology During the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic: Avoiding “Zoom Fatigue”Brenda K. WiederholdBrenda K. WiederholdBrenda K. Wiederhold, Editor-in-Chief Search for more papers by this authorPublished Online:10 Jul 2020https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2020.29188.bkwAboutSectionsView articleView Full TextPDF/EPUB Permissions & CitationsPermissionsDownload CitationsTrack CitationsAdd to favorites Back To Publication ShareShare onFacebookXLinked InRedditEmail View article"Connecting Through Technology During the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic: Avoiding “Zoom Fatigue”." 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AN EXPLORATORY EXAMINATION OF DIGITAL EXHAUSTION OF EDUCATORS IN TURKIYE1 January 2023 | Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, Vol. 24, No. 1Moving Beyond Web Conferencing Tools: ESL Professional Development Workshops in Virtual Reality Platforms30 June 2023The Tribrid-Meeting-Setup – Improving Hybrid Meetings Using a Telepresence Robot9 July 2023Videoconferencing: Miracle Tool or Policy Trap in the Governance of Smart and Sustainable Mobility?18 July 2023“A Terrible Beauty Is Born”: Opportunities and New Perspectives for Online Teaching and AssessmentLingue Culture Mediazioni - Languages Cultures Mediation (LCM Journal), Vol. 10, No. 1HoloLearn: Towards a Hologram Mediated Hybrid Education27 September 2023Hardiness and Zoom Fatigue on Nursing Students: A Cross-Sectional Study in Indonesia During Online Learning1 October 2023 | Advances in Medical Education and Practice, Vol. Volume 14“Am I Ready for This Change?”: Challenges in Optimizing the Use of Online Learning in Medical and Health Professions Education During the Pandemic and Beyond7 November 2023Atuação da Psicologia em Unidade Neonatal no Contexto da Pandemia da Covid-191 January 2023 | Psicologia: Ciência e Profissão, Vol. 43Efficacy of PEERS® for Adolescents via Telehealth Delivery27 May 2022 | Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, Vol. 52, No. 12Proactive strategies for an inclusive faculty search process16 June 2022 | Communications Biology, Vol. 5, No. 1The impact of COVID-19 on digital communication patterns23 May 2022 | Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, Vol. 9, No. 1Medical student’s perception of the COVID-19 pandemic effect on their education and well-being: a cross-sectional survey in the United States5 March 2022 | BMC Medical Education, Vol. 22, No. 1Lessons learned from a pandemic: implications for a combined exercise and educational programme for medical students8 April 2022 | BMC Medical Education, Vol. 22, No. 1Conducting a randomised controlled trial of a psychosocial intervention for adolescents with type 1 diabetes during COVID-19: recommendations to overcome the challenges complicated by inconsistent public health guidelines on research27 April 2022 | Trials, Vol. 23, No. 1Digital temperance: adapting an ancient virtue for a technological age22 November 2022 | Ethics and Information Technology, Vol. 24, No. 4Online-Supervision14 July 2022 | Zeitschrift für Psychodrama und Soziometrie, Vol. 21, No. S2Navigating learners towards technology-enhanced learning during post COVID-19 semestersTrends in Neuroscience and Education, Vol. 29An Educational Perspective on Online Learning PlatformsTechnologically-assisted communication attenuates inter-brain synchronyNeuroImage, Vol. 264Virtual recruitment - should this be the future for dental core training?25 November 2022 | British Dental Journal, Vol. 233, No. 10Zoom fatigue under covid-19-pandemien: Hva innebærer fenomenet, og hvordan kan det forebygges?Uniped, Vol. 45, No. 4Early Field Experiences Through Telepresence RobotsWhere to Look? 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An exploratory study of the associations between social networks, sense of community and spatial colocation28 December 2021 | Journal of Corporate Real Estate, Vol. 24, No. 4Governing in the time of Covid-19: how board meetings went online and the implications of this for considering the role of the governing board19 October 2022 | Journal of Further and Higher Education, Vol. 51The Effects of Attributes of Non-Immersive Virtual Reality on Customers’ Experience of Video Tours under Social Distancing for COVID-1914 October 2022 | International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, Vol. 6Moving intensive onsite courses online: responding to COVID-19 educational disruption15 June 2022 | International Journal of Ethics Education, Vol. 7, No. 2Webinars, podcasts, Tweetorials, oh my!Journal of Vascular Surgery, Vol. 76, No. 4Resilience and Wellbeing Strategies for Pandemic Fatigue in Times of Covid-1930 September 2022 | International Journal of Applied Positive Psychology, Vol. 78Zoom Yorgunluğu: Bir Gözden Geçirme30 September 2022 | Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar, Vol. 14, No. 3Being Prepared and Preparing the Students for the Central Exam with Distance Education22 September 2022 | Pamukkale University Journal of EducationBridging social distance during social distancing: exploring social talk and remote collegiality in video conferencing11 November 2021 | Human–Computer Interaction, Vol. 37, No. 5Variations in consumer acceptance, sensory engagement and method practicality across three remote consumer-testing modalitiesFood Quality and Preference, Vol. 100Remote learning experiences of African Nova Scotian households in Canada during the COVID-19 temporary school closure: implications for inclusive education policy implementation7 August 2022 | International Journal of Inclusive Education, Vol. 36Individual and Situational Factors Influencing Active Behavior in Professional Video Conferences With Strangers7 August 2022 | Social Science Computer Review, Vol. 6From frequency to fatigue: Exploring the influence of videoconference use on videoconference fatigue in SingaporeComputers in Human Behavior Reports, Vol. 7“Seeing and Being Seen” or Just “Seeing” in a Smart Classroom Context When Videoconferencing: A User Experience-Based Qualitative Research on the Use of Cameras4 August 2022 | International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Vol. 19, No. 15Understanding patterns of internal migration during the COVID‐19 pandemic in Spain16 June 2022 | Population, Space and Place, Vol. 28, No. 6Blended (online and in‐person) Women’s Health Interprofessional Learning by Simulation (WHIPLS) for medical and midwifery students18 April 2022 | Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Vol. 62, No. 4Ten simple rules for leveraging virtual interaction to build higher-level learning into bioinformatics short courses28 July 2022 | PLOS Computational Biology, Vol. 18, No. 7AbGradCon 2021: lessons in digital meetings, international collaboration, and interdisciplinarity in astrobiology6 July 2022 | International Journal of Astrobiology, Vol. 17Recommendations for Building Telemental Health Relationships with Youth: A Systematic Review and Resource for Clinicians22 October 2021 | Evidence-Based Practice in Child and Adolescent Mental Health, Vol. 7, No. 3A National Study of Zoom Fatigue and Mental Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Implications for Future Remote Work Eric B. Elbogen, Megan Lanier, Sarah C. Griffin, Shannon M. Blakey, Jeffrey A. Gluff, H. Ryan Wagner, and Jack Tsai11 July 2022 | Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, Vol. 25, No. 7The Influence of E-Scaffolding Sources in a Mobile Learning Environment on Students’ Design Skills and the Technology Fatigue Associated with a 3D Virtual Environment11 July 2022 | Electronics, Vol. 11, No. 14INVESTIGATION OF PARENTS’ VIEWS ON THE DISTANCE EDUCATION PROCESS DURING THE PANDEMIC22 June 2022 | Journal of Advanced Education Studies, Vol. 4, No. 1DATA COLLECTION BY ONLINE IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: A POSTGRADUATE THESIS EXAMPLE14 June 2022 | Pamukkale University Journal of Social Sciences InstituteTwelve tips to enhance student engagement in synchronous online teaching and learning20 April 2021 | Medical Teacher, Vol. 44, No. 6Current and future influences of COVID-19 on the knowledge management function of conventions and exhibitions15 March 2022 | Service Business, Vol. 16, No. 2Robust Institutional Support and Collaboration Between Summer Training Programs in Cancer and Biomedicine Drive the Pivot to a Virtual Format in Response to the COVID January 2022 | Journal of Cancer Education, Vol. 37, No. of a Social Virtual Reality into the Vol. 29, No. Work Meetings During the COVID-19 Pandemic: The and May 2021 | Group Research, Vol. No. of in in the for New in for Use by May 2022 | Journal of Cognitive and Vol. 16, No. Online during COVID-19 Is Scientific February 2022 | Vol. 13, No. the Is and to It and K. June 2022 | Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, Vol. 25, No. learning Review of Education, Vol. May 2022 | Vol. 12, No. in the experiences and to and reflections the year of January 2022 | The Clinical Vol. 36, No. Psychological and Academic M. and May 2022 | Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, Vol. 25, No. of via videoconference on fatigue and Implications for the March 2022 | Healthcare Management Vol. No. Policy of Technology April 2022 | Education Sciences, Vol. 12, No. under A July 2021 | Journal of Family Vol. 44, No. Strategies During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Virtual Learning for Public Health and Cancer Health April 2022 | Frontiers in Public Health, Vol. during How a to online interaction and social April 2022 | Journal of Research on Vol. 16, No. a Roadmap for Technology in Social Training the of Social February 2022 | in Social Vol. No. Psychological for with Learning during the Pandemic: The Experiences of in the March 2022 | Journal of Mental Health Research in Vol. 15, No. to education and communication the and intensive community during the COVID-19 Vol. No. to education and communication the and intensive community during the COVID-19 Vol. No. and implementation of a virtual pain management programme to COVID-19: a September 2021 | British Journal of Vol. 16, No. Video Conference Fatigue of in the on Video Conference Social and April 2022 | International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Vol. 19, No. of in during the COVID‐19 pandemic: the and of and challenges and the of mental health and in December 2021 | Journal of Research in Educational Vol. 22, No. New with COVID-19 and A Qualitative Study on Zoom Fatigue30 March 2022 | Vol. 19, No. distance une No. Social in Remote Social A for of When the Social of Interactions via Videoconferencing March 2022 | Frontiers in Psychology, Vol. the stress of and of Zoom December 2021 | Electronic Vol. 32, No. social as of A study under in Human Behavior, Vol. the of to an online in to February 2022 | Sciences Education, Vol. 15, No. changes in social during COVID pandemic in the United December 2021 | Vol. 29, No. in Journal of and Vol. 13, No. or How online February 2022 | PLOS Vol. No. in Zoom Fatigue B. and February 2022 | Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, Vol. 25, No. of on mental August 2021 | Vol. 19, No. 1Videoconference Fatigue: A February 2022 | International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Vol. 19, No. 4The Use of Videoconferencing in Higher January and digital communication in Australian December 2021 | Journal of the International for Business, Vol. No. and in Industry August Zoom Learning February and in During Coronavirus January of Leadership on June Online Social a from a of February An Approach to Social During Online June Virtual Reality August in a Mediated July – und February Teaching as an for Vol. 22, No. Video During the COVID-19 Pandemic and Effects on May 2021 | and Vol. No. During Remote Teaching in through a pandemic: impact of on and of Clinical Medicine, Vol. 18, No. during the pandemic A Systematic Review using April 2022 | Information Science, Vol. 6, No. Hybrid Learning Challenges and February de de de December 2022 | Vol. 4, No. of COVID‐19 with and variables in An analysis of September 2021 | The International Journal of Health and Management, Vol. 37, No. Design With Research for the Development of a Digital for and August 2022 | Journal of Research Vol. No. to Equity, and in Science and December 2021 | Frontiers in Science, Vol. December 2021 | Vol. 25, No. reality during the COVID-19 pandemic: A and and Vol. for study for a randomized controlled September 2021 | Pilot and Studies, Vol. 7, No. and A Design December in social of and mothers during the COVID-19 Vol. “Zoom A November 2021 | Applied Psychology, Vol. The from to of Human - 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后疫情时代科学传播与公众信任研究综述：生成逻辑、影响机制与优化路径

1. 绪论

1.1 核心概念与研究范畴界定

1.2 领域研究脉络梳理

2. 后疫情时代健康错误信息与谣言的传播特征及社会影响

2.1 健康错误信息与谣言的传播新特征

2.2 健康错误信息对公众认知与行为的影响

3. 后疫情时代公众对专家信任的演化逻辑与影响因素

3.1 公众专家信任的变动趋势

3.2 专家信任的核心影响因素

4. 社交媒体平台在科学传播与信任构建中的双重作用

4.1 社交媒体作为科学传播主渠道的正向价值

4.2 平台运行逻辑对信任构建的负面效应

5. 后疫情时代风险沟通的实践模式与效果评估

5.1 不同主体的风险沟通模式对比

5.2 风险沟通的效果差异与影响因素

6. 科学传播公信力提升与信任修复的干预策略研究进展

6.1 个体与群体层面的干预策略

6.2 平台与传播主体层面的干预策略

7. 现有研究局限与未来展望

7.1 研究不足梳理

7.2 未来研究方向展望

参考文献

Suppr 超能文献

Suppr 超能文献

后疫情时代科学传播与公众信任研究综述：生成逻辑、影响机制与优化路径

1. 绪论

1.1 核心概念与研究范畴界定

1.2 领域研究脉络梳理

2. 后疫情时代健康错误信息与谣言的传播特征及社会影响

2.1 健康错误信息与谣言的传播新特征

2.2 健康错误信息对公众认知与行为的影响

3. 后疫情时代公众对专家信任的演化逻辑与影响因素

3.1 公众专家信任的变动趋势

3.2 专家信任的核心影响因素

4. 社交媒体平台在科学传播与信任构建中的双重作用

4.1 社交媒体作为科学传播主渠道的正向价值

4.2 平台运行逻辑对信任构建的负面效应

5. 后疫情时代风险沟通的实践模式与效果评估

5.1 不同主体的风险沟通模式对比

5.2 风险沟通的效果差异与影响因素

6. 科学传播公信力提升与信任修复的干预策略研究进展

6.1 个体与群体层面的干预策略

6.2 平台与传播主体层面的干预策略

7. 现有研究局限与未来展望

7.1 研究不足梳理

7.2 未来研究方向展望

参考文献

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