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  3. 人为什么会出轨?从心理到社会的多维度解析

人为什么会出轨?从心理到社会的多维度解析

深度研究匿名用户发表于 2025年12月28日 12:430阅读
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1. 出轨的定义:从肉体到情感的多元边界

1.1 什么行为算出轨?超越“性”的认知误区

提到“出轨”,很多人脑海里首先浮现的,大概是伴侣与他人在肉体上发生了亲密关系。然而,在心理学和亲密关系研究领域,出轨的定义远比这要复杂和宽泛得多。它不再仅仅局限于身体上的接触,而是逐渐扩展到了情感、甚至网络互动等多个层面。

想象一下,你的伴侣与某人频繁地在社交媒体上私聊,分享内心深处的秘密,甚至开始对TA产生依赖感,但他们之间并没有任何肢体接触。这算不算“出轨”呢?答案是:很多人会觉得算。学术界也逐渐认识到,这种“非身体接触型出轨”的伤害,有时甚至不亚于传统意义上的肉体出轨。

德国的一项大型社会调查就很好地说明了这一点 1。研究人员通过情景问卷的形式,让受访者判断各种行为是否算作不忠。结果发现,虽然性行为无论在什么情境下都被明确认定为出轨,但一些不那么“露骨”的行为,比如亲吻、拥抱,甚至是没有身体接触、只有暧昧短信和情感投入的线上交流,也被很多人视为出轨 1。特别值得注意的是,在判断这些非身体接触行为时,女性的评判标准普遍比男性更严格,年轻人的标准也比老年人更严苛 1。这表明,公众对出轨的理解已经超越了单纯的生理行为,情感上的背叛和线上暧昧同样能击穿关系的底线。

1.2 出轨的普遍性:不同群体的隐藏数据

出轨这个话题,常常被人们看作是少数人的“桃色新闻”,或者是一些“道德败坏”个体的行为。但真实情况可能远比我们想象的要普遍。研究数据显示,大约有25%的婚姻中都曾发生过出轨行为 2。这可不是一个小数字,这意味着我们身边每四对夫妻中,就可能有一对面临过出轨的挑战。

更深入地看,不同文化背景和职业群体中,出轨的发生率也呈现出有趣的差异。比如,在秘鲁年轻人中进行的一项研究,通过对行为模式的分析,将出轨者分成了几类:有15.7%的人属于“全面出轨”类,既有性出轨也有情感出轨;还有14.4%的人属于“性欲望”类,主要倾向于性方面的出轨;另外27.2%的人是“情感兴趣”类,侧重于情感上的投入;而坚持忠诚的只有42.5% 3。这项研究还发现,男性更容易倾向于性欲望型出轨,而女性则更容易陷入情感兴趣型出轨或保持忠诚 3。

此外,一些特定职业群体,比如医疗从业者,由于工作压力大、作息不规律,也可能面临更高的出轨风险。高强度的工作和夜班常常会挤占伴侣相处的时间,减少情感交流,无形中增加了与外部人员接触的机会,从而为出轨创造了“环境温床”。这提醒我们,出轨并非只关乎个人道德,更与我们所处的社会文化、生活环境,甚至职业特点都有着千丝万缕的联系。

2. 童年创伤与依恋模式:早期经历如何埋下隐患

2.1 童年逆境(ACEs)与出轨的关联路径

我们常说“不幸的童年需要一生来治愈”,这句话在亲密关系领域体现得尤为明显。童年逆境,或者说“童年不良经历”(Adverse Childhood Experiences, ACEs),就像是埋在我们内心深处的“地雷”,一旦触及,可能在成年后对我们的亲密关系,甚至出轨行为产生深远影响。

ACEs包括一系列不愉快的童年经历,比如身体虐待、情感忽视、性虐待、家庭暴力、父母离异或有精神疾病等。这些经历不仅仅是童年记忆中的伤疤,它们会实实在在地改变我们大脑的发育,影响我们建立信任、调节情绪和形成健康亲密关系的能力 456789。研究表明,经历过ACEs的人,成年后在亲密关系中更容易出现问题 5。

举个例子,一个在童年时期长期被父母忽视的孩子,可能在成年后发展出一种对亲密关系的不信任感。这种矛盾的心理,让他们在亲密关系中可能表现出不安全的依恋风格,这与出轨行为存在关联 10。一项针对584名成年人的研究发现,童年逆境与成年后的出轨行为呈正相关 10。这意味着,童年经历的创伤越多,成年后出轨的频率就越高 10。

这背后的逻辑是,ACEs会破坏我们对他人建立信任的能力 9。想象一下,如果一个孩子从小就没有得到父母稳定的关爱和保护,他们会觉得世界是不安全的,他人是不可靠的。这种“不信任”的种子一旦种下,在成年后的亲密关系中,他们会很难真正相信伴侣的忠诚和爱意。当关系中出现摩擦或不确定时,他们可能不是去解决问题,而是转向外部寻求情感的慰藉或刺激,以此来弥补内心深处的空虚或不安全感。更残酷的是,这种不信任感甚至可能让他们潜意识里觉得,“反正最终都会被伤害,不如先下手为强”,从而主动去做出背叛伴侣的行为。

此外,童年逆境还会导致我们情绪调节能力的缺陷 8。如果一个孩子从小没有学会如何健康地处理愤怒、悲伤或焦虑,那么在成年后,当亲密关系中出现这些负面情绪时,他们可能无法有效地应对。出轨有时就成了他们逃避或麻痹痛苦的一种方式,通过短暂的刺激来缓解内心的不适,尽管这种方式饮鸩止渴,却能带来一时的解脱。

2.2 依恋类型的决定性作用:回避型依恋者的“情感逃离”

如果说童年创伤是亲密关系的“地雷”,那么依恋类型就是引爆这颗地雷的“导火索”。依恋理论是心理学中一个非常重要的概念,它描述了我们在婴儿时期与主要抚养者互动过程中形成的,关于如何看待自己、他人以及亲密关系的内在工作模型。简单来说,它决定了我们成年后在亲密关系中会如何表现,比如是寻求亲密、害怕亲密,还是对亲密关系充满焦虑。

在众多依恋类型中,“回避型依恋”常常被认为是导致出轨行为的一个重要因素。回避型依恋者就像是一群“情感逃离者”,他们内心深处渴望亲密,但又害怕被束缚、害怕失去独立性,甚至害怕被伤害。为了避免这种潜在的痛苦,他们往往会与伴侣保持一定的距离,不愿深入地投入情感。当亲密关系变得过于“亲密”或出现问题时,他们常常会选择逃避,而不是面对和解决。

出轨,对回避型依恋者来说,可能就是一种“情感逃离”的方式。它既能提供短暂的新鲜感和刺激,满足其对“自由”和“独立”的渴望,又能让他们避免与现有伴侣深入解决问题。一项针对童年逆境与出轨的研究就发现,童年不良经历确实会增加焦虑型和回避型依恋风格的形成,但只有回避型依恋与更高的出轨频率显著相关 10。这意味着,即使经历过童年创伤,也并非所有人都会出轨,回避型依恋这种“不愿太靠近”的心理,在其中扮演了关键角色。

与回避型依恋者形成鲜明对比的是“焦虑型依恋者”。焦虑型依恋者则常常对亲密关系感到不安,害怕被抛弃,因此会不断寻求伴侣的关注和确认。当他们感到关系不稳定或伴侣不够投入时,可能会通过各种方式来“测试”伴侣的爱,甚至可能做出一些极端行为来吸引注意力。虽然焦虑型依恋也会给亲密关系带来挑战,但研究表明,焦虑型依恋与“报复性”不原谅和“个人痛苦”有正相关,这通常是在被伴侣背叛后的一种反应,而不是主动出轨的动机 11。在嫉妒的反应上,安全型依恋者和男性中的安全型依恋者,更容易因为“情感出轨”感到痛苦,而不是“性出轨” 12。这说明,不同依恋类型的人,对亲密关系中的背叛行为有着不同的感受和应对方式。

简而言之,回避型依恋者在面对亲密关系中的压力和不适时,倾向于向外寻找情感出口,以维持自己的独立空间,避免更深层次的情感投入和矛盾解决。这种“情感逃离”的机制,使得他们在出轨的边缘更容易徘徊,也更容易付诸行动。

3. 关系质量的镜子:婚姻满意度与沟通困境

3.1 低满意度婚姻的“预警信号”:性与情感需求的双重缺失

当我们深入探讨出轨的原因时,婚姻关系本身的质量无疑是绕不开的核心。很多时候,出轨就像一面镜子,映照出伴侣关系中早已存在的裂痕和问题。其中,婚姻满意度低下,尤其是性与情感需求的长期缺失,往往是出轨最直接的“预警信号”。

想象一下,一对夫妻,曾经的爱意和激情被日常琐事和压力消磨殆尽。他们可能不再像以前那样互相倾听,很少分享心事,甚至连亲密接触都变得敷衍或干脆没有。这种长期积累的情感忽视和性生活不和谐,就像是婚姻关系中的“慢性病”,虽然不会立刻致命,但会逐渐侵蚀关系的根基,让一方或双方感到被冷落、不被理解、不被渴望。当这些需求在伴侣那里得不到满足时,人们便可能开始将目光投向婚姻之外,寻求情感上的慰藉或是生理上的满足。

研究发现,婚姻满意度与出轨行为之间存在着密切的联系。一项针对已婚人士的调查显示,婚姻不满意是预测出轨行为的重要因素之一 13。也就是说,当一个人在婚姻中感到不快乐、不满足时,TA出轨的风险会显著增加。这种不满可能体现在多个方面:

  • 情感缺失: 伴侣之间缺乏深度交流,感受不到情感支持,日常生活中缺乏爱意表达,使得一方感到孤独和被孤立。这种情感上的空虚,很容易让第三方的出现趁虚而入,填补内心的空白。
  • 性生活不和谐: 性是亲密关系的重要组成部分。如果夫妻双方在性生活上存在长期不协调,或者一方的性需求长期被忽视,都可能导致不满。例如,有研究表明,性生活满意度低会直接导致出轨意图的增加,而关系满意度在其中起到了中介作用 14。也就是说,性生活不满意会先影响整体关系满意度,进而增加出轨的可能性。此外,男性出轨者中,性生活不满意也是一个显著的预测因素 15。

值得注意的是,“为性出轨”和“为情感出轨”虽然都源于婚姻中的需求缺失,但它们背后驱动的因素和触发场景可能有所不同。

  • 为性出轨: 这类出轨可能更多地由生理欲望和对新鲜刺激的追求驱动。当伴侣关系中的性生活变得乏味、稀少,或无法满足一方特定的性需求时,个体可能会在外界寻求满足。这可能发生在偶然的机会,也可能是在刻意寻找下发生。对于一些人来说,性出轨可能并不意味着情感上的背叛,而仅仅是生理需求的一种释放。
  • 为情感出轨: 这种出轨则更侧重于情感连接和心理需求。当一个人在婚姻中感到被忽视、不被理解、缺乏情感支持时,他们可能会渴望得到一份能够倾听、关怀、理解自己的情感寄托。这种情感上的“漏洞”一旦被外界补足,即使没有肉体关系,也可能形成深度的情感依赖,这种“精神出轨”对婚姻的破坏性有时甚至更大。青少年时期出轨动机的研究也发现,出于情感或性不满而出轨与更高的心理健康水平相关,这表明出轨有时能作为探索新感觉和情感的途径,从而促进个人成长 16。

当然,这两种出轨并非完全割裂,有时它们会相互转化或同时存在。但无论是哪种形式,婚姻中性与情感需求的长期缺失,都像是在婚姻的围墙上凿开了一个个缺口,为外部的诱惑提供了可乘之机。

3.2 无效沟通的恶性循环:指责与冷暴力如何推远伴侣

在亲密关系中,沟通就像是两个人之间的“交通线”,顺畅的沟通能让爱意流动、问题解决;而一旦这条交通线堵塞甚至断裂,关系就很容易陷入困境,甚至为出轨埋下伏笔。许多低满意度婚姻的背后,都隐藏着无效沟通的恶性循环,其中最典型的莫过于“要求-退缩”模式,以及由此引发的指责与冷暴力。

想象一个场景:妻子(通常是“要求者”)觉得丈夫不够关心自己,开始抱怨:“你为什么总是不听我说话?你根本就不关心我!”而丈夫(通常是“退缩者”)面对指责,感到压力和不适,选择沉默、转移话题,或者干脆走开,避免冲突。妻子看到丈夫退缩,感到更受伤害和被忽视,于是抱怨升级,指责更甚;丈夫则更加退缩,形成一个恶性循环 17。

这种“要求-退缩”的沟通模式,就像是一场没有硝烟的战争。一方越是试图通过抱怨、指责甚至争吵来表达不满、寻求关注和解决问题,另一方就越是感到被攻击、被压迫,从而选择逃避、沉默或冷处理。久而久之,沟通的桥梁被摧毁,双方的心墙越来越高。当伴侣一方长期处于这种被忽视、不被理解、情感需求得不到回应的状态时,他们内心的情感账户就会逐渐“透支”。

研究显示,无效沟通与低婚姻满意度以及更高的出轨风险显著相关 18。特别是在这种“要求-退缩”的模式下,退缩的一方(往往是男性,尽管这不是绝对的)可能会因为无法应对伴侣的指责而感到无力,转而寻求外部的理解和肯定;而要求的一方(往往是女性)则可能因为长期感受不到伴侣的回应而感到绝望,转向外界寻求情感支持和温暖。

我们来看一个具体的对话案例,以说明矛盾是如何升级的:

场景:晚饭后,妻子试图与丈夫交流,丈夫沉迷手机。

  • 妻子(要求者,语气略带不满):“你每天回家就是玩手机,我们多久没有好好说过话了?”
  • 丈夫(退缩者,不抬头,敷衍地):“我在看新闻。”
  • 妻子(指责,声音提高):“新闻有我重要吗?你眼里还有没有这个家?!”
  • 丈夫(感到被攻击,情绪低落,选择沉默):“……”(继续看手机,或者起身走开)
  • 妻子(愤怒、失望):“你!每次都是这样,跟你说话就像对牛弹琴!我真是受够了!”

在这个例子中,妻子从最初的情感需求(希望交流)变成了指责,而丈夫则从敷衍变成了冷暴力(沉默、走开)。这样的互动重复上演,双方都会感到筋疲力尽,情感连接日益脆弱。当一个人在家中无法获得情感上的慰藉和理解时,外界的一点点关怀或诱惑,都可能变得异常吸引人。无效沟通不仅没有解决问题,反而像一把钝刀,一点点地切断了伴侣之间的情感纽带,使得出轨成为一种看似“解脱”的可能。良好的沟通是维持亲密关系健康发展的基石,沟通的缺失或恶化则往往是关系走向危机的关键信号 19。

4. 文化与社会的隐形推手:群体差异的深层逻辑

4.1 文化规范的影响:传统与开放社会的出轨容忍度

出轨,这个看似私人的行为,其实也深深根植于我们所处的社会文化土壤之中。不同的文化规范,就像是无形的“行为指南”,悄然塑造着人们对出轨的态度、容忍度,甚至是出轨的发生率。在一些传统社会中,对忠诚的强调和对出轨的严厉惩罚,可能会在一定程度上抑制出轨行为;而在更为开放的社会中,个人自由和情感体验被赋予更高价值,出轨的界限可能变得模糊,甚至被赋予更复杂的解读。

我们不妨对比一些不同文化群体的研究,来观察这种差异。这类研究往往会揭示,在某些更强调家庭荣誉、集体价值观和传统性别角色的文化中,出轨行为可能会面临更大的社会压力和耻辱感。尤其是在一些父权社会中,女性的出轨行为往往会受到更为严厉的谴责,甚至可能引发针对女性的暴力行为 20212223。这表明,文化规范不仅影响了对出轨的道德评判,也可能与实际的社会后果紧密相连。

宗教信仰在其中扮演了重要角色。许多宗教都将婚姻的忠贞视为核心教义,对出轨行为持否定态度。研究发现,个人宗教信仰越坚定,出轨的发生率往往越低 1324。这可能是因为宗教信仰不仅提供了一套道德准则,也通过社区、家庭等社会网络形成了对个人行为的监督和约束。例如,一项针对大学生伴侣的研究发现,那些认为自己的亲密关系是“神圣的”(即“关系圣化”)个体,发生身体出轨和情感出轨的可能性更低。这种“圣化”感通过降低性态度的宽容度,进一步抑制了出轨行为 25。然而,也有研究指出,宗教的个人重要性并非总能有效预测出轨行为 26,这提示我们,宗教影响的复杂性,可能需要更细致的探讨,比如关注个体对宗教教义的理解和践行程度,而非仅仅是表面的信仰。

此外,性别角色观念也对出轨行为的容忍度产生了深远影响。在许多文化中,对男女出轨行为存在双重标准,即对男性出轨的宽容度往往高于女性。这种观念 rooted 在历史和社会结构中,认为男性在性方面更容易“犯错”,而女性则需承担维系家庭和贞洁的责任。然而,随着社会发展和性别平等观念的普及,这种性别差异正在逐渐缩小 24。尽管如此,在一些传统观念根深蒂固的地区,男性对伴侣的性嫉妒反应可能仍然强烈,甚至可能引发针对女性的家庭暴力,尤其是在涉及出轨的情境中 202223。相反,如果男性伴侣对同性出轨表现出更高的容忍度,这可能反映了进化心理学中,男性对亲子不确定性的担忧,因为同性出轨不会带来意外的后代 27。

总而言之,文化规范对出轨行为的影响是多层次的,它既设定了道德边界,也塑造了社会对不同性别、不同类型出轨行为的期待和反应。理解这些差异,有助于我们更全面地看待出轨这一复杂的人类行为。

4.2 社会压力的间接催化:职业高压与时间错位的“漏洞”

除了显性的文化规范,一些隐形的社会压力,特别是职业上的高压和由此带来的时间错位,也可能间接催化出轨行为,为伴侣关系制造出“漏洞”。在现代社会,很多行业都面临着巨大的竞争和工作强度,这种压力不仅消耗着个人的精力,也悄然侵蚀着亲密关系的堡垒。

医护人员群体就是一个典型的例子。白衣天使们救死扶伤,但他们的工作往往伴随着长时间的轮班、夜班、高强度的工作负荷,以及巨大的精神压力。你可能会想,这跟出轨有什么关系呢?关系可大了!

想象一下,一个医生或者护士,常常需要值夜班,甚至连续工作十几个小时。当他们拖着疲惫的身躯回到家,可能已经没有多余的精力去和伴侣进行深入的沟通和情感交流了。日复一日,这种工作模式会大大减少伴侣共处的时间,更别提高质量的约会和亲密互动。夫妻之间原本应该通过日常相处来维系的情感联结,在时间的挤压下变得越来越淡薄。一项针对台湾注册护士的研究就发现,轮班工作,特别是夜班,与较差的家庭功能(即家庭成员之间缺乏互相支持、亲密和解决问题的能力)之间存在显著关联 28。虽然这项研究没有直接指出出轨,但家庭功能变差无疑为亲密关系中的危机埋下了伏笔。

当伴侣在家中无法获得足够的情感满足和陪伴时,他们可能会在工作场所寻找慰藉。医护人员之间,由于共同面对高压和生死瞬间,更容易产生“战友情谊”和情感依赖。在日复一日的并肩作战中,如果有人表现出理解、关心和支持,这种情感上的链接就可能超出职业范畴,演变为暧昧,甚至出轨。

此外,职业高压有时也会导致个体寻求刺激和逃避现实。面对巨大的压力,一些人可能会通过出轨这种“非日常”的体验来短暂地逃离现实的沉重,寻求精神上的放松和新鲜感。这种情况下,出轨并非出于对伴侣的恶意,而更多是自身应对压力的一种失调反应。

因此,职业高压和时间错位,就像在伴侣关系上撕开了一个个“漏洞”。这些漏洞不会直接导致出轨,但它们削弱了关系的免疫力,增加了外部诱惑趁虚而入的机会。这提醒我们,在关注个人品德和关系问题时,也不应忽视宏观社会环境,特别是职业压力对亲密关系造成的深远影响。

5. 个性特质与神经基础:冲动性与自我控制的生物学视角

5.1 ADHD与出轨:神经发育差异带来的行为倾向

当我们谈论出轨时,除了外在环境和关系因素,我们也不能忽视个体内在的生物学和神经学基础。有时候,一些看似是“个性”或“选择”的行为,背后可能隐藏着大脑运作方式的差异。其中,注意力缺陷多动障碍(ADHD),一种常见的神经发育障碍,就被发现与更高的出轨风险存在关联。

ADHD,顾名思义,主要表现为注意力不集中、多动和冲动。这不仅仅是“淘气”或“不专心”那么简单,它涉及到大脑中负责执行功能、自我控制和奖赏系统的一些神经回路的运作差异。对于ADHD患者来说,他们可能更难长时间集中注意力,更容易被外部刺激分散,同时,他们也可能更容易表现出冲动行为,难以抑制即时满足的欲望。

那么,这些特质是如何与出轨行为联系起来的呢?

首先是冲动性。ADHD患者由于大脑前额叶皮层(负责决策、计划和冲动控制)的功能不足,往往难以抵制诱惑,更容易做出未经深思熟虑的决定。在亲密关系中,这可能表现为,当遇到一个有吸引力的新对象或诱惑时,他们可能缺乏足够的“刹车”能力去抑制出轨的冲动,导致行为先于思考发生 29。

其次是寻求刺激。ADHD患者由于大脑奖赏通路的功能异常,可能需要更强烈的刺激才能感受到愉悦和满足。这使得他们更容易对单调、缺乏新意的关系感到厌倦,转而寻求新鲜感和刺激,而出轨恰好能提供这种“即时满足”和“新鲜刺激” 29。他们可能会觉得现有关系不够刺激,或者对伴侣的性生活感到不满意,从而转向外界寻找更冒险、更刺激的体验 2930。

多项研究都支持了ADHD与出轨行为之间的关联:

  • 一项针对大学生的长期研究发现,患有ADHD的大学生,即使在服药的情况下,在大学一年级时就报告了比没有ADHD的同龄人更高比例的冒险性行为,包括危险性行为 31。这表明ADHD带来的冲动性,可能让他们在早期就更容易涉足性冒险。
  • 另一项针对近1400人的匿名在线调查显示,ADHD组(包括男性和女性)对同性或双性伴侣的偏好更高,电子性行为(如网上性交流)、自慰和性传播疾病的发生率也更高。他们对性兴趣和实践更具冒险精神,并且对伴侣的性生活和整体满意度都显著更低 29。这清楚地表明ADHD患者在性行为上可能更倾向于多样化和冒险。
  • 在法国大学生的“i-Share”研究中,研究人员发现,有高度ADHD症状的学生在广泛的冒险性行为方面都面临更高的风险,包括首次性行为年龄较早、在过去12个月内避孕套使用不一致、被诊断出性传播感染,以及在过去12个月内拥有多个性伴侣 32。

尤其值得注意的是,ADHD对女性出轨风险的影响可能更大。上述匿名在线调查揭示,在ADHD群体中,女性ADHD患者有更早的性行为初体验、更不频繁地使用避孕措施、拥有更多的性伴侣,并且发生不忠行为的比例更高 29。虽然男性ADHD患者也有冒险性行为,但女性ADHD患者在性行为风险上表现出更强的倾向 29。另一项针对年轻女性的质性研究也指出,患有ADHD的年轻女性在性行为和浪漫关系中会经历更多挣扎,她们可能更容易违反性行为规范、难以集中注意力,并可能因为低自尊和负面自我形象而难以在性关系中有效沟通,从而增加被性侵害的风险 33。

总而言之,ADHD不仅仅是一种专注力问题,它的神经生物学基础所导致的冲动性、对刺激的强烈需求以及情绪调节的困难,都可能成为推动个体走向出轨的内在驱动力。对于这些人群来说,出轨可能不是单纯的道德选择问题,而是其神经发育差异带来的一种行为倾向,需要更全面的理解和支持。

5.2 道德约束的个体差异:“无内疚感”人群的行为逻辑

除了神经发育的差异,人的个性特质中,对道德约束的敏感程度,也像是一条无形的线,决定着我们行为的边界。有些人天生就对“道德越界”的行为感到强烈的内疚和不安,而另一些人,则仿佛拥有某种“道德豁免权”,即便做出背叛伴侣的行为,也能够心安理得,甚至毫无内疚感。这种“无内疚感”的人群,他们的行为逻辑往往与众不同,也更容易突破亲密关系的底线。

“无内疚感”并非贬义词,它在心理学上可以与“道德脱离”机制,以及“黑暗人格特质”(如自恋、马基雅维利主义和精神病态)联系起来。这些特质会影响一个人如何看待和处理道德困境,以及他们在伤害他人后是否会感到自责。

1. 道德脱离(Moral Disengagement)机制:
道德脱离是指个体通过一系列心理机制,将自己的不道德行为与内心的道德标准解耦,从而减轻或消除行为带来的内疚感。举个例子,一个人可能会对出轨行为进行合理化,比如告诉自己:“是伴侣先不关心我的,所以我才去找别人”、“这不算出轨,我们只是聊聊天”、“反正大家都在出轨,这没什么大不了的”。通过这些方式,他们成功地将自己的行为从道德评判中“剥离”出来,从而避免了良心上的谴责。研究发现,道德脱离机制在出轨行为中扮演了重要角色,那些更容易道德脱离的人,也更容易做出不忠行为 34。甚至有研究显示,具有黑暗人格特质的人,更容易使用道德脱离机制来为自己的不道德行为开脱 35。

2. 黑暗人格特质(Dark Triad/Tetrad):
心理学上将自恋、马基雅维利主义和精神病态这三种特质合称为“黑暗三联征”(Dark Triad),再加上日常的施虐倾向,则构成“黑暗四联征”(Dark Tetrad)。拥有这些特质的人,往往表现出:

  • 自恋: 过度关注自我,需要他人的持续赞美,缺乏同情心。他们可能认为自己有权得到更多的关注和满足,即使这意味着伤害伴侣。
  • 马基雅维利主义: 精于算计,善于操控他人,为了达到个人目的而不择手段。他们可能将出轨视为一种获取个人利益(如情感满足、社会地位或性满足)的手段。
  • 精神病态(Psychopathy): 缺乏同情心、内疚感,冲动,容易感到无聊,寻求刺激。这类人可能在出轨后几乎感受不到任何悔意,甚至会将出轨视为一种刺激和冒险。有研究指出,病理性赌徒在规划和决策方面存在缺陷,可能导致冲动行为和不计后果的决定 36。

多项研究都指出,黑暗人格特质与出轨行为之间存在显著的正相关。例如,一项针对308名年轻人的研究发现,男性在道德脱离和黑暗人格特质上的得分均高于女性。而那些有出轨行为或观看色情内容的个体,在这些特质上的得分也更高 35。另一项研究也指出,出轨、色情内容消费以及维持同性关系,是增加黑暗人格和道德脱离机制存在的变量 34。

3. 价值观的灵活性与出轨动机:
对于一部分“无内疚感”的人来说,他们的价值观本身就具有更大的灵活性。他们可能不把忠诚视为绝对的原则,或者在某些情境下,他们对忠诚的定义会变得非常宽松。这种价值观的灵活性,使得他们在面对诱惑时,更容易调整自己的道德底线,为出轨行为找到“合理”的解释。他们可能会认为,人生苦短,应该及时行乐;或者认为,出轨是追求个人幸福的一种方式,而无需为伴侣的感受负责。

总而言之,对于这部分“无内疚感”的人群来说,出轨并非是简单的诱惑所致,而是其内在个性特质和思维模式的体现。他们通过道德脱离机制减轻内心冲突,凭借黑暗人格特质驱动行为,并利用灵活的价值观来合理化自己的选择,从而在出轨的道路上走得更为“坦然”。

6. 数字时代的催化:社交媒体与疫情的新变量

6.1 线上互动的暧昧陷阱:虚拟亲密如何突破现实边界

在21世纪,我们的生活已经与数字世界密不可分,社交媒体、在线游戏、各种即时通讯工具,都成了我们日常沟通和娱乐的主要方式。然而,这些便捷的线上互动平台,在带来便利的同时,也悄然为亲密关系埋下了新的“暧昧陷阱”,甚至成为了突破现实边界、引发线上出轨的催化剂。

想象一下,你可能正在通勤路上刷着朋友圈,或者在午休时玩着一款热门的网络游戏。突然,一个有趣的头像或一段妙语连珠的评论吸引了你的注意,你点进去一看,发现对方与你有着共同的兴趣爱好。一来二去,你们开始私聊,从兴趣聊到生活,从生活聊到心事。这种线上交流,由于其匿名性、便捷性以及缺乏面对面交流的压力,往往更容易让人放下戒备,敞开心扉。

这种“网络出轨”或称“线上不忠”的现象,在当今社会变得越来越普遍。它不需要身体接触,甚至不需要见面,仅仅通过文字、语音、图片甚至虚拟形象的互动,就能建立起一种情感上的连接,从而构成对现实伴侣关系的背叛。

那么,线上互动是如何降低情感背叛的心理门槛的呢?

  1. 匿名性和去抑制效应: 在线上环境中,人们往往会感到更匿名、更不被约束。这种“去抑制效应”使得人们更容易说出在现实生活中不会说的话,做出不会做的事。虚拟世界的身份掩护,让人们更容易尝试新的角色,或者表达内心深处被压抑的欲望,包括对现实关系的不满或对其他人的兴趣。
  2. 情感投入的低成本: 相比于现实世界的约会和接触,线上互动的情感投入成本更低。你不需要精心打扮,不需要安排时间地点,只需要动动手指就能与人建立连接。这种低成本的投入,使得人们更容易去探索婚姻之外的可能性,即使只是为了满足好奇心或寻找一点刺激。
  3. 误解与模糊界限: 线上交流有时会模糊了“朋友”和“暧昧对象”之间的界限。一句不经意的玩笑、一个看似友好的表情包,都可能被误读为更深层次的兴趣。而一旦这种误解没有及时澄清,情感的投入就会像滚雪球一样,越滚越大。特别是一些看似无害的“虚拟亲密”,比如在社交媒体上与异性频繁互动、点赞、评论,或者进行私下聊天,都可能被伴侣视为出轨的前兆,进而影响婚姻满意度 37。
  4. “替代伴侣”的出现: 社交媒体和在线平台提供了无限多的潜在“替代伴侣”。当一个人在现实伴侣那里感到不满意时,例如婚姻质量低下,感到孤独 38,线上丰富的选择和即时反馈,很容易让人将目光投向这些潜在的替代品,寻找情感慰藉或刺激。研究表明,在社交媒体上与“替代伴侣”交流,往往与更低的关系满意度相关 37。

更进一步,这种“线上倾诉-线下见面”的转化路径也日益明显。最初,可能只是纯粹的线上聊天,分享心事,彼此成为“知己”。随着情感的升温和信任的建立,这种虚拟亲密很容易发展成线下见面的欲望。从咖啡馆的第一次见面,到更频繁的约会,最终可能导致情感和身体上的出轨。一项研究指出,对潜在替代对象的吸引力强度越大,与主要关系质量下降的关联越明显,这可能进一步促使个体希望与“ crush”对象发生情感或性关系,甚至导致主要关系的破裂 39。

社交媒体,特别是像Twitter这样的平台,已经明确被证实与更高的关系冲突和负面关系结果(包括出轨、分手和离婚)相关 40。这并不是说社交媒体本身是“坏”的,而是提醒我们,在数字时代,维护亲密关系需要我们对线上互动保持更高的警惕和自我约束。虚拟世界中的情感陷阱,可能比我们想象的更具迷惑性和破坏力。

6.2 疫情隔离的双刃剑:亲密压缩与外部诱惑的双重冲击

2020年,一场突如其来的全球疫情(COVID-19)深刻改变了我们的生活方式,其中也包括我们与伴侣相处的方式。疫情期间的隔离、封锁和居家办公,就像一把双刃剑,既可能让伴侣间的亲密关系更加紧密,也可能因为“亲密压缩”和随之而来的外部诱惑,为出轨行为创造新的温床。

想象一下疫情封锁期间的场景:原本各有各的生活空间和社交圈的伴侣,突然被“强制”24小时捆绑在一起。工作、生活、育儿,所有的事情都集中在一个屋檐下。这无疑是对亲密关系的一次巨大考验。

1. 亲密压缩导致的情感倦怠:
长期居家隔离,意味着伴侣双方相处时间空前增加,私人空间和独处机会却大大减少。这种“亲密压缩”起初可能带来一丝甜蜜,但很快就会演变为情感倦怠。你可能发现伴侣的每个小习惯都变得放大,一些曾经可以忽略的小缺点也变得难以忍受。这种持续的、高强度的互动,很容易让人感到疲惫和厌烦。此外,疫情带来的焦虑、压力和不确定性,也可能让夫妻双方更容易产生摩擦和冲突 41。

例如,一项针对疫情期间母亲群体压力的研究就发现,育儿压力、抑郁以及缺乏配偶支持,都会显著增加母亲的“倦怠感” 42。虽然这项研究主要关注母亲,但类似的情绪倦怠在伴侣关系中是普遍存在的。当一方或双方长期处于这种倦怠和压力之下,婚姻满意度自然会下降。心理学研究发现,社会隔离、人际分离和亲密关系丧失会增加夫妻关系的风险 41。当伴侣关系中充满了倦怠、压力和负面情绪,却又无法有效沟通和解决时,寻求外部情感慰藉的冲动就会随之滋生。

2. 社交限制解除后的“补偿性出轨”:
当疫情的阴霾逐渐散去,社交限制解除,人们开始重新回到工作岗位和社交场合时,另一种出轨风险也悄然浮现——“补偿性出轨”。在经历了长时间的压抑和隔离之后,人们内心深处被压抑的社交需求、新鲜感和刺激感开始喷涌而出。

对于一些在疫情期间感情出现裂痕、感到孤独或情感被忽视的人来说,社交限制的解除,就像打开了一个闸门。他们可能会寻求“补偿性”的刺激和体验,来弥补隔离期间的压抑和不满足。这种补偿可能体现在:

  • 寻求新鲜感: 长期居家生活带来的单调和乏味,让一些人渴望新的体验和刺激。
  • 弥补情感缺失: 在疫情期间感到被伴侣忽视、情感连接变弱的人,可能会在社交场合中寻找新的情感寄托和关注。
  • 逃避现实: 疫情带来的经济压力、精神压力,以及对未来不确定性的担忧,可能会让一些人选择通过出轨来暂时逃避这些现实问题。

多项研究都指出了疫情对亲密关系的复杂影响。一些研究表明,疫情期间的社会隔离和亲密关系受损,可能会导致心理健康问题增加 4344。在某些情况下,为了应对隔离带来的痛苦,技术虽然恢复了部分连接感,但无法完全复制面对面的互动 45。

疫情的爆发,就像是给全球亲密关系做了一次“压力测试”。它放大了关系中原有的问题,也催生了新的挑战。环境的剧烈变动,让许多人重新审视自己的生活和关系。在这种背景下,出轨不再仅仅是个人选择,更可能成为社会环境变迁下,人们对压力、孤独和不满足的一种应对方式。

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参考文献

1What is Infidelity? A Vignette Study on Norms and Attitudes toward Infidelity.PubMed

Christiane Bozoyan, Claudia Schmiedeberg
J Sex Res. 2023 Oct;60(8):1090-1099. doi: 10.1080/00224499.2022.2104194. Epub 2022 Aug 3.
Infidelity is more than extradyadic intercourse, but it is unclear where infidelity begins and how behaviors are related to each other. We investigated data from a factorial survey experiment implemented in the German Family Panel (pairfam). 9,104 respondents evaluated 26,633 vignettes on unfaithful behaviors including four dimensions: explicit behavior, emotional involvement, infidelity duration, and erotic online contact. Results suggest that item lists may not reveal the full picture of unfaithfulness. While intercourse is judged as unfaithful irrespective of the context, less explicit behaviors such as kisses or hugs were also regarded as infidelity. Nonphysical dimensions contributed to infidelity judgments more strongly when less explicit behaviors were evaluated. Even cases of no physical contact combined with erotic text messages and emotional involvement were evaluated as unfaithful. Women's judgments were stricter than men's, and younger respondents' evaluations were stricter than those from older respondents. No differences were found regarding the gender of the vignette character.

2Infidelity in the Time of COVID-19.PubMed

Kristina Coop Gordon, Erica A Mitchell
Fam Process. 2020 Sep;59(3):956-966. doi: 10.1111/famp.12576. Epub 2020 Aug 20.
Infidelity occurs in approximately 25% of marriages and is associated with various negative consequences for individuals (e.g., depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress), the couple relationship (e.g., financial loss, increased conflict, and aggression), and the couple's children (e.g., internalizing and externalizing behaviors). Infidelity is also one of the most frequently cited reasons for divorce. The increased stress brought on by the pandemic may be putting couples at an increased risk for experiencing infidelity, and data collected during the pandemic have shown that people across the United States are engaging in behaviors that are associated with a high likelihood of experiencing infidelity. The negative consequences of infidelity are also likely to be exacerbated for couples during the pandemic due to the intersection with the social, emotional, and financial consequences of COVID-19. Furthermore, couples are likely to experience disruptions and delays to the affair recovery process during the pandemic, which can negatively impact their ability to heal. Therefore, recommendations for navigating affair recovery during the pandemic, including adaptations for therapy, are also discussed.

3Exploring Infidelity Behavior Patterns in a Sample of Peruvian Young Adults: A Latent Class Analysis.PubMed

José Ventura-León, Ammy Reyes, Pablo D Valencia, et al.
J Marital Fam Ther. 2025 Oct;51(4):e70066. doi: 10.1111/jmft.70066.
Infidelity has been widely researched; however, few studies have analyzed its behavioral patterns holistically using a person-centered approach. This study, with a sample of 400 young adults (M = 25.28; SD = 7.24), identified patterns of unfaithful behavior by using latent class analysis to classify subgroups with distinct patterns. The 20-item Likert-scale Multidimensional Infidelity Inventory-S (MII-S) was used to assess sexual and emotional infidelity. The results indicated four latent classes: infidelity (15.7%), sexual desire (14.4%), emotional interest (27.2%), and fidelity (42.5%). In addition, age and sex were significantly related to class membership. On the other hand, men were more likely to belong to the sexual desire class and women to the emotional interest and fidelity classes. For sexual orientation or relationship duration, there were no significant differences. Implications for clinical practice and research are discussed.

4Violence Exposure and Trauma-Informed Care.PubMed

Michael Arenson, Heather Forkey
Pediatr Clin North Am. 2023 Dec;70(6):1183-1200. doi: 10.1016/j.pcl.2023.06.010. Epub 2023 Aug 12.
Addressing violence in pediatrics requires a working knowledge of trauma-informed care (TIC). TIC weaves together our current understanding of evolution, child development, and human physiology and how these explain common childhood responses to traumatic events. In this article, we describe our current approach to treating childhood trauma in the context of violence. Ultimately, TIC relies on the pediatrician's ability to keep trauma high on their differential diagnosis. TIC leverages a child's natural strengths and biologic processes by (1) scaffolding the patient's relationships to safe, stable, and nurturing adults and (2) strengthening core resilience skills while addressing trauma symptoms when necessary.

5Professionalism Lapses and Adverse Childhood Experiences: Reflections From the Island of Last Resort.PubMed

Betsy White Williams
Acad Med. 2019 Aug;94(8):1081-1083. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000002793.
This Invited Commentary highlights the prevalence of adverse childhood experiences and the potential effect that such experiences can have in the medical education setting on trainees, colleagues, and faculty. The author draws on 20 years of experience working in organizations devoted to helping physicians with disruptive behavior learn new behavioral skills to enable them to function within the complex medical environment. A case example-an amalgam of individuals who have presented for remediation-is used to illustrate the issues that result from adverse childhood experiences. There is a broad and well-understood literature demonstrating a correlation between early life trauma and medical and mental health issues. Adverse early life experiences can also contribute to attachment-related difficulties including problems with boundaries, trust, and suspiciousness; lack of reciprocity; lack of attunement with others' emotional states; as well as regulation issues, including difficulties labeling and expressing feelings and internal states. Difficulties with self-concept, including a lack of continuous and predictable sense of self, low self-esteem, and shame and guilt, are also associated with exposure to adverse childhood experiences. Given the documented high proportion of health care workers, including physicians, who are trauma survivors, trauma-sensitive education must be a priority, not only in medical school but across the educational continuum.

6Objective and subjective experiences of childhood maltreatment and their relationships with cognitive deficits: a cohort study in the USA.PubMed

Andrea Danese, Cathy Spatz Widom
Lancet Psychiatry. 2024 Sep;11(9):720-730. doi: 10.1016/S2215-0366(24)00224-4.
BACKGROUND: Cognitive deficits might contribute to the elevated risk of life-course psychopathology observed in maltreated children. Leading theories about the links between childhood maltreatment and cognitive deficits focus on documented exposures (objective experience), but empirical research has largely relied on retrospective self-reports of these experiences (subjective experience), and the two measures identify largely non-overlapping groups. We aimed to test the associations of objective and subjective measures of maltreatment with cognitive abilities within the same individuals. METHODS: We studied a cohort of individuals from the US Midwest with both objective, court-documented evidence of childhood maltreatment and subjective self-reports of individuals' histories at age 29 years. Between the ages of 29 years and 41 years, participants were assessed with a comprehensive set of cognitive tests, including tests of general verbal intelligence (Quick Test and Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised [WRAT]), non-verbal intelligence (Matrix Reasoning Test [MRT]), executive function (Stroop Test and Trail Making Test Part B [TMT-B]), and processing speed (Trail Making Test Part A [TMT-A]). Participants were also assessed for psychopathology (Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale and Beck Anxiety Inventory). We tested the associations between objective or subjective measures of childhood maltreatment with cognitive functions using ordinary least squares regression. To test whether cognitive deficits could explain previously described associations between different measures of maltreatment and subsequent psychopathology, we re-ran the analyses accounting for group differences in the Quick Test. People with lived experience were not involved in the research or writing process. FINDINGS: The cohort included 1196 individuals (582 [48·7%] female, 614 [51·3%] male; 752 [62·9%] White, 417 [34·9%] Black, 36 [3·8%] Hispanic) who were assessed between 1989 and 2005. Of the 1179 participants with available data, 173 had objective-only measures of childhood maltreatment, 492 had objective and subjective measures, 252 had subjective-only measures, and 262 had no measures of childhood maltreatment. Participants with objective measures of childhood maltreatment showed pervasive cognitive deficits compared with those without objective measures (Quick Test: β=-7·97 [95% CI -9·63 to -6·30]; WRAT: β=-7·41 [-9·09 to -5·74]; MRT: β=-3·86 [-5·86 to -1·87]; Stroop Test: β=-1·69 [-3·57 to 0·20]; TMT-B: β=3·66 [1·67 to 5·66]; TMT-A: β=2·92 [0·86 to 4·98]). The associations with cognitive deficits were specific to objective measures of neglect. In contrast, participants with subjective measures of childhood maltreatment did not differ from those without subjective measures (Quick Test: β=1·73 [95% CI -0·05 to 3·50]; WRAT: β=1·62 [-0·17 to 3·40]; MRT: β=0·19 [-1·87 to 2·24]; Stroop Test: β=-1·41 [-3·35 to 0·52]; TMT-B: β=-0·57 [-2·69 to 1·55]; TMT-A: β=-0·36 [-2·38 to 1·67]). Furthermore, cognitive deficits did not explain associations between different measures of maltreatment and subsequent psychopathology. INTERPRETATION: Previous studies based on retrospective reports of childhood maltreatment have probably grossly underestimated the extent of cognitive deficits in individuals with documented experiences of childhood maltreatment, particularly neglect. Psychopathology associated with maltreatment is unlikely to emerge because of cognitive deficits, but might instead be driven by individual appraisals, autobiographical memories, and associated schemas. FUNDING: National Institute of Justice, National Institute of Mental Health, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institute on Aging, Doris Duke Charitable Foundation, and National Institute for Health and Care Research.

7Adverse Childhood Experiences, Preventive Care Utilization, and Patient-Nurse Trust Relationship Among Sexual and Gender Minority Individuals.PubMed

Peijia Zha, Rubab Qureshi, Sallie Porter, et al.
Nurs Res. 2023;72(6):439-446. doi: 10.1097/NNR.0000000000000682. Epub 2023 Jul 25.
BACKGROUND: Individuals who identify as sexual and gender minorities often experience high rates of adverse childhood experiences and encounter discrimination and stigma in their interactions with healthcare providers, leading to low utilization of healthcare services. However, the relationship between adverse childhood experiences, preventive care utilization, and trust in nurses among sexual and gender minority individuals remains unclear. PURPOSE: This study explored the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and preventive care use and assessed the potential interaction effects of trust in nurses between adverse childhood experiences and preventive care use among individuals from sexual and gender minorities. METHODS: A cross-sectional design was used. A sample of 160 self-reported individuals from sexual and gender minorities completed an electronic online survey. Multiple linear regression and moderation analyses were conducted to examine the association between adverse childhood experiences, preventive care utilization, and nurse trust. RESULTS: There was a significant negative relationship between adverse childhood experiences and preventive care utilization. There was also a significant positive relationship between trust and preventive care utilization. The results also indicated that trust in nurses moderated the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and preventive care utilization among sexual and gender minority individuals. DISCUSSION: A significant relationship was found between a high prevalence of adverse childhood experiences and low healthcare service utilization. Strengthening the trust relationship between nurses and sexual and gender minority individuals could serve as a potential intervention point, leading to improved health outcomes for this vulnerable population. Hence, enhancing trust in nurses could be a key factor in increasing healthcare service utilization and overall health outcomes.

8Child maltreatment and resilience in adulthood: a systematic review and meta-analysis.PubMed

Natalia E Fares-Otero, Julia Carranza-Neira, Jacqueline S Womersley, et al.
Psychol Med. 2025 Jun 2;55:e163. doi: 10.1017/S0033291725001205.
We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to quantify associations between overall and subtypes of CM, global/trait resilience, and five resilience domains (coping, self-esteem, emotion regulation, self-efficacy, and well-being) in adults, and to examine moderators and mediators of these associations. A systematic search was undertaken on 12 June 2024 to identify published peer-reviewed articles in five databases (PROSPERO-CRD42023394120). Of 15,262 records, 203 studies were included, comprising 145,317 adults (M = 29.62 years; 34.96% males); 183 studies and 557 effect sizes were pooled in random-effect meta-analyses. Overall CM and its subtypes were negatively associated with global/trait resilience and its domains ( = -0.081 to -0.330). Emotional abuse/neglect showed the largest magnitude of effect ( = -0.213 to -0.321). There was no meta-analytic evidence for an association between sexual abuse and coping, and physical abuse/neglect and self-esteem. Meta-regressions identified age, sample size, and study quality as moderators. Subgroup analyses found that associations between emotional abuse and emotion regulation were stronger, while associations between emotional abuse and self-esteem were weaker, in western non-western countries. No differences were found in associations between CM and resilience in clinical non-clinical samples. Narrative synthesis identified several mediators. Associations were of small magnitude and there were a limited number of studies, especially studies assessing CM subtypes, such as physical neglect, bullying, or domestic violence, and resilience domains, such as coping or self-efficacy, in males, and clinical samples. CM exposure negatively impacts resilience in adults, an effect observed across multiple maltreatment types and resilience domains. Interventions focused on resilience in adults with CM histories are needed to improve health and psychosocial outcomes.

9Oxytocin Receptor Gene (OXTR) and Childhood Adversity Influence Trust.PubMed

Shaofeng Zheng, Takahiko Masuda, Masahiro Matsunaga, et al.
Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2020 Nov;121:104840. doi: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.104840. Epub 2020 Aug 18.
Early-life environments have been associated with various social behaviors, including trust, in late adolescence and adulthood. Given that the oxytocin receptor gene polymorphism (OXTR rs53576) moderates the impact of childhood experience on social behaviors, in the present study, we examined the main effect of childhood adversity through a self-report measure and its interactions with OXTR rs53576 on general trust among 203 Japanese and 200 European Canadian undergraduate students. After controlling for the effect of culture, the results indicated that childhood adversity had a negative association with general trust, and that OXTR rs53576 moderated the impact of childhood adversity on general trust. Specifically, the negative association between childhood adversity and general trust is only significant among homozygote A-allele carriers. These findings demonstrated that OXTR rs53576 moderated the relations between childhood experiences and social functioning in early adulthood.

10Adverse childhood experiences and infidelity: The mediating roles of anxious and avoidant attachment styles.PubMed

Phoebe Coyle, George Van Doorn, Robert Teese, et al.
Fam Process. 2025 Mar;64(1):e13088. doi: 10.1111/famp.13088. Epub 2024 Nov 25.
Infidelity is any behavior that breaks the implied agreement of exclusivity within a romantic relationship and is a leading cause of divorce. Previous literature has established a relationship between Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and infidelity perpetration. As experiencing childhood adversity does not guarantee an individual will engage in infidelity, mechanisms explaining this relationship should be explored. We investigated whether avoidant and anxious attachment styles mediate the relationship between ACEs and cheating frequency. A sample of 584 participants aged 18-82 years (M = 35.31, SD = 11.68, 67.0% female) was recruited and completed online versions of the Childhood Experiences Survey-17, the Relationship Structures Questionnaire, and frequency of cheating behavior in their current or most recent relationship. After dichotomizing gender and testing assumptions, data from 553 participants were available for analysis. A parallel mediation provided support for the first hypothesis, and partial support for the second. Specifically, ACEs were positively associated with anxious and avoidant attachment styles, but only avoidant attachment was significantly and positively associated with cheating frequency. As such, only avoidant attachment acted in a manner consistent with a mediator in the relationship between ACEs and infidelity. This result suggests a potential link between childhood adversity and the development of both avoidant and anxious attachment styles, but that individuals with an avoidant attachment style are more likely to engage in infidelity. These findings provide insight into the role attachment styles play in infidelity post-childhood adversity, and have the potential to guide therapeutic interventions for affected individuals.

11Unforgiveness in the Light of Sexual Infidelity: Anxious Attachment to the Partner and Personal Distress as Correlates.PubMed

Ana M Beltrán-Morillas, Inmaculada Valor-Segura, Francisca Expósito
Psychol Rep. 2025 Oct;128(5):3457-3477. doi: 10.1177/00332941231208395. Epub 2023 Oct 18.
It has been widely documented that infidelity is established as one of the main causes of relationship breakdowns. Likewise, the empirical literature has also revealed the association between anxious attachment and personal distress with unforgiveness motivations. However, there is no known research that has examined the role of anxious attachment to the partner, personal distress, and unforgiveness motivations in infidelity and even less, taking into account the perspective of the offended person. Through a correlational study ( = 304 Spanish participants from the general population [ = 26.25, = 9.62]), we examined the relationship between unforgiveness motivations (revenge and avoidance motivations for unforgiveness), anxious attachment to the partner, and personal distress experienced after a hypothetical sexual infidelity from the perspective of the offended person. The results showed that anxious attachment was positively associated with revenge motivation for unforgiveness and personal distress. Moreover, high levels of anxious attachment to the partner were only associated with higher avoidance motivation for unforgiveness through increased levels of personal distress. Last but not least, we discuss these findings and their possible repercussions for intimate relationships.

12Sex differences in jealousy: a contribution from attachment theory.PubMed

Kenneth N Levy, Kristen M Kelly
Psychol Sci. 2010 Feb;21(2):168-73. doi: 10.1177/0956797609357708. Epub 2009 Dec 22.
Studies have found that more men than women endorse sexual infidelity as more distressing than emotional infidelity, whereas more women than men endorse emotional infidelity as more distressing than sexual infidelity. Some evolutionary psychologists have proposed that this sex difference can be best conceptualized as reflecting evolution-based differences in parental investment that produce a need for paternity certainty among men and a need for male investment in offspring among women. Nonetheless, a conspicuous subset of men report emotional infidelity as more distressing than sexual infidelity. Current theorizing explains between-sex differences but not within-sex differences. We hypothesized that attachment-style differences may help to explain both between- and within-sex differences in jealousy. As hypothesized, dismissing avoidant participants reported more jealousy regarding sexual than emotional infidelity (64.8%), and secure participants, including secure men, reported more jealousy regarding emotional than sexual infidelity (77.3%), chi(2)(3, N = 411) = 45.03, p < .001. A series of sequential logistic regression analyses indicated significant moderation of the sex-jealousy relationship by attachment style. Implications of an attachment perspective are discussed.

13Predicting sexual infidelity in a population-based sample of married individuals.PubMed

Mark A Whisman, Kristina Coop Gordon, Yael Chatav
J Fam Psychol. 2007 Jun;21(2):320-4. doi: 10.1037/0893-3200.21.2.320.
Predictors of 12-month prevalence of sexual infidelity were examined in a population-based sample of married individuals (N = 2,291). Predictor variables were organized in terms of involved-partner (e.g., personality, religiosity), marital (e.g., marital dissatisfaction, partner affair), and extradyadic (e.g., parenting) variables. Annual prevalence of infidelity was 2.3%. Controlling for marital dissatisfaction and demographic variables, infidelity was predicted by greater neuroticism and lower religiosity; wives' pregnancy also increased the risk of infidelity for husbands. In comparison, self-esteem and partners' suspected affair were predictive of infidelity when controlling for demographic variables but were not uniquely predictive of infidelity when also controlling for marital dissatisfaction. Religiosity and wives' pregnancy moderated the association between marital dissatisfaction and infidelity.

14Sex life dissatisfaction contribute to intention toward infidelity among Malaysians: relationship satisfaction as a mediator.PubMed

Soon Aun Tan, Siew Mun Ang, Pit Wan Pung, et al.
BMC Psychol. 2025 Jan 24;13(1):68. doi: 10.1186/s40359-025-02414-8.
BACKGROUND: Intention toward infidelity or extramarital affairs could be caused by sex life dissatisfaction and low relationship satisfaction. Although sex is just a tiny part of a marriage's relationship, the importance of sex life in a relationship cannot be easily underestimated. Past studies have found some important associations between sex life and relationship satisfaction in determining whether a person would decide to engage in marital infidelity. Nonetheless, the underlying mechanism of the association between sex life satisfaction and intention toward infidelity is unexplored in the Malaysian context. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the mediating role of relationship satisfaction in its direct association between sex life satisfaction and intention toward infidelity among Malaysian married individuals. METHOD: A total of 292 married individuals (M=42.98; SD=9.82; 66.4% women; 65.4% Chinese Malaysians, 15.8% Indians Malaysians, 14.7% Others Ethnic Malaysians, and 4.1% Malay Malaysians) participated in the cross-sectional quantitative online survey. RESULTS: A significant positive association was found between sex life and relationship satisfaction. However, sex life and relationship satisfaction were negatively associated with intention toward infidelity. Meanwhile, relationship satisfaction significantly mediates the link between sex life satisfaction and intention toward infidelity after controlling for the effects of age and gender. These findings support the hypothetical mediating role of relationship satisfaction in the association between sex life satisfaction and intention toward infidelity. CONCLUSIONS: This study may fill a knowledge gap in Malaysia about the underlying association among these variables as well as the practical implication of the importance of sex life and relationship satisfaction in determining whether one would engage in extramarital affairs.

15Infidelity in couples seeking marital therapy.PubMed

David C Atkins, Jean Yi, Donald H Baucom, et al.
J Fam Psychol. 2005 Sep;19(3):470-3. doi: 10.1037/0893-3200.19.3.470.
The revelation of an affair is often an emotionally explosive event for a couple, yet little is known about specific individual and relationship factors that accompany infidelity. The present study examined the qualities of individuals and couples that differentiate couples with (n = 19) and without (n = 115) infidelity using couples from a randomized clinical trial of marital therapy. Findings indicated that couples with infidelity showed greater marital instability, dishonesty, arguments about trust, narcissism, and time spent apart. Gender also proved to be a significant moderator of several effects. Men who had participated in affairs showed increased substance use, were older, and were more sexually dissatisfied. Results offer initial clues to concomitants of affairs for couple therapists.

16The Relationship Between the Motivation to Commit Infidelity and Negative Affect and Self-Esteem: How Cheating in Romance Might Signal Positive Well-Being in Adolescents.PubMed

Ana M Beltrán-Morillas, María Alonso-Ferres, Marta Garrido-Macías, et al.
Psychol Rep. 2022 Feb;125(1):517-544. doi: 10.1177/0033294120973947. Epub 2020 Nov 16.
Infidelity occurs in adult romantic relationships quite often; however, little is known about this relational phenomenon in the adolescent stage, despite its being a surprisingly common behavior. Through a correlational study, we set out to examine how the various documented motivations to engage in an act of infidelity are associated with negative emotional responses, self-esteem, and psychological well-being. In a sample of Spanish adolescents ( = 346 [ = 15.71, = 1.27; range from 13 to 19]), results showed that committing an act of infidelity due to sexual or emotional dissatisfaction (vs. neglect and anger) is related to higher levels of psychological well-being by undermining negative affect, thereby increasing the levels of self-esteem. The discussion of the findings emphasizes that infidelity could favor adolescents' personal growth, because of the need to explore new sensations and feelings that arise during this period.

17Demand and withdraw behaviors in couples with a history of infidelity.PubMed

Christina M Balderrama-Durbin, Elizabeth S Allen, Galena K Rhoades
J Fam Psychol. 2012 Feb;26(1):11-7. doi: 10.1037/a0026756. Epub 2011 Dec 26.
Although relationship distress and dissolution are common consequences of sexual involvement outside a committed relationship, there is little empirical information regarding communication behaviors of couples who have experienced extradyadic involvement (EDI). This study examined male and female demand and withdraw behaviors in videotaped conflict discussions among 170 married or seriously dating couples categorized into 3 groups: those without a history of sexual EDI, those with a history of sexual EDI that was known to the other partner, and those with a history of "unknown" (undisclosed or undiscovered) sexual EDI. Both men and women in a relationship where there was at least one unknown EDI demonstrated the highest levels of demand behaviors. Furthermore, demand behaviors were higher for participating partners (those engaging in an outside sexual relationship) in relationships with an unknown EDI compared with participating partners in relationships with a known EDI. Conversely, demand behaviors were higher among nonparticipating partners in relationships with known EDI, compared to with nonparticipating partners in relationships with unknown EDI. Withdraw behaviors demonstrated a less pronounced and less consistent pattern of elevation by EDI group, and role within EDI, compared with demand behaviors. Clinical and relational implications for these findings are discussed.

18Predictors of extradyadic sexual involvement in unmarried opposite-sex relationships.PubMed

Amanda M Maddox Shaw, Galena K Rhoades, Elizabeth S Allen, et al.
J Sex Res. 2013;50(6):598-610. doi: 10.1080/00224499.2012.666816. Epub 2012 Apr 23.
Using a sample of unmarried individuals in opposite-sex romantic relationships that was representative of the United States (N = 933), the current study prospectively evaluated predictors of extradyadic sexual involvement (ESI) over 20 months (from 2007-2010). Data were collected with self-report questionnaires via U.S. mail. Participants were 18 to 35 years old, and 34.9% were male. Variables tested as predictors included involved-partner factors such as demographic characteristics, sexual history, and mental health, as well as relationship-related factors including communication, sexual dynamics, and aspects of commitment. Future ESI was significantly predicted by lower baseline relationship satisfaction, negative communication, aggression, lower dedication, absence of plans to marry, suspicion of partners' ESI, and partners' ESI. It was not predicted by sexual frequency, sexual dissatisfaction, or cohabitation status. Although more problems with alcohol use, more previous sex partners, and having parents who never married one another predicted future ESI, there were many involved-partner demographic factors that did not predict later ESI (e.g., gender, age, education, religiosity, having divorced parents, and having children). None of the results were moderated by gender. These results suggest that compared to demographic characteristics, relationship dynamics and negative interactions are more strongly predictive of future ESI. Implications for future research are discussed.

19The role of disclosure in relationships.PubMed

Yayouk E Willems, Catrin Finkenauer, Peter Kerkhof
Curr Opin Psychol. 2020 Feb;31:33-37. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.07.032. Epub 2019 Jul 21.
Self-disclosure happens between people and lies at the heart of almost all relationships. It elicits a dynamic process that shapes and is shaped by, relationships. We review theoretical and empirical milestones in our understanding of how and why disclosure develops, is maintained, and unravels in relationships. We show that people use their and their partners' disclosure to discern relationship quality and negotiate relationship development.

20Gender-Specific Jealousy and Infidelity Norms as Sources of Sexual Health Risk and Violence Among Young Coupled Nicaraguans.PubMed

Sabrina Boyce, Perla Zeledón, Ever Tellez, et al.
Am J Public Health. 2016 Apr;106(4):625-32. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2015.303016. Epub 2016 Feb 18.
Gender inequity negatively affects health in Central America. In 2011, we conducted 60 semistructured interviews and 12 photovoice focus groups with young coupled men and women in León, Nicaragua, to explore the ways in which social norms around marriage and gender affect sexual health and gender-based violence. Participants' depictions of their experiences revealed gendered norms around infidelity that provided a narrative to justify male expressions of jealousy, which included limiting partner autonomy, sexual coercion, and physical violence against women, and resulted in increased women's risk of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. By understanding and taking account of these different narratives and normalized beliefs in developing health- and gender-based violence interventions, such programs might be more effective in promoting gender-equitable attitudes and behaviors among young men and women in Nicaragua.

21Social norms for intimate partner violence in situations involving victim infidelity.PubMed

Tricia H Witte, Mazheruddin M Mulla
J Interpers Violence. 2012 Nov;27(17):3389-404. doi: 10.1177/0886260512445381. Epub 2012 May 18.
The present study investigated perceived descriptive norms (i.e., perceived prevalence) for male-to-female intimate partner violence (IPV) following victim infidelity (i.e., girlfriend had sex with another man). While watching a video-taped vignette of a young, dating couple in an argument that escalated to male-to-female violence, male participants were asked various questions to assess perceived descriptive norms at several time points during the escalating argument. Half of the participants were told that the victim in the video was unfaithful. Results suggested that while participants did believe that it was much more common for their male friends and for typical male students to aggress against unfaithful girlfriends compared to faithful girlfriends, these differences were less pronounced as the aggression intensified. When testing whether perceived norms for IPV were related to participants' purported risk of engaging in IPV, a clear pattern appeared: For the no-infidelity condition, IPV perceived norms for male friends and perceived norms for typical male students were each significantly related to participants' likelihood of engaging in IPV, such that the higher the estimated norm, the higher the participants' risk. However, for the infidelity condition, only perceived norms for male friends were related to the risk of engaging in IPV. Findings have important implications for social norms-based intervention and prevention programs for IPV on college campuses.

22Male honor and female fidelity: implicit cultural scripts that perpetuate domestic violence.PubMed

Joseph A Vandello, Dov Cohen
J Pers Soc Psychol. 2003 May;84(5):997-1010. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.84.5.997.
Two studies explored how domestic violence may be implicitly or explicitly sanctioned and reinforced in cultures where honor is a salient organizing theme. Three general predictions were supported: (a) female infidelity damages a man's reputation, particularly in honor cultures; (b) this reputation can be partially restored through the use of violence; and (c) women in honor cultures are expected to remain loyal in the face of jealousy-related violence. Study 1 involved participants from Brazil (an honor culture) and the United States responding to written vignettes involving infidelity and violence in response to infidelity. Study 2 involved southern Anglo, Latino, and northern Anglo participants witnessing a "live" incident of aggression against a woman (actually a confederate) and subsequently interacting with her.

23Men's Reflections on Romantic Jealousy and Intimate Partner Violence in Mwanza, Tanzania.PubMed

Diana Aloyce, Heidi Stöckl, Donati Malibwa, et al.
Violence Against Women. 2023 May;29(6-7):1299-1318. doi: 10.1177/10778012221108421. Epub 2022 Aug 30.
Romantic jealousy is a prominent trigger for intimate partner violence. Yet, there are few studies on this relationship in sub-Saharan Africa and none captures men's perspectives. To expand the existing knowledge on romantic jealousy and its relation to intimate partner violence, our study analyzed 30 in-depth interviews with male participants. Triggers of romantic jealousy included suspicion or confirmed infidelity, reduced attention from their partners, and challenges to male supremacy. Men reported that intimate partner violence was a frequently used response to triggers of romantic jealousy. Social norms and inequitable gender norms were key underlying factors to all those triggers.

24Infidelity in romantic relationships.PubMed

Frank D Fincham, Ross W May
Curr Opin Psychol. 2017 Feb;13:70-74. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.03.008. Epub 2016 Apr 30.
This article summarizes the current state of research on the prediction of infidelity and provides a foundation for advancing knowledge on this topic by offering specific recommendations for future research. The prevalence, terminological diversity, and impact of infidelity on numerous indicators of wellness is first discussed. This is followed by a discussion of the individual, relationship, and contextual factors that have received systematic attention in attempting to predict infidelity. Highlights include various demographics, the closing gender gap, cohabitation, religion, and the role of the internet in facilitating infidelity. The article concludes with 8 recommendations for more informative research to advance understanding of sexual infidelity.

25Sanctification and Cheating Among Emerging Adults.PubMed

Paige McAllister, Elena Henderson, Meghan Maddock, et al.
Arch Sex Behav. 2020 May;49(4):1177-1188. doi: 10.1007/s10508-020-01657-3. Epub 2020 Mar 16.
Cheating-a general term for extradyadic romantic or sexual behavior that violates expectations in a committed romantic relationship-is common and leads to a number of poor outcomes. Religion has historically influenced conceptions of romantic relationships, but societal attitudes about religion are in flux as many seek to retain spirituality even as affiliations with formal religion decrease. The present study evaluated a potential predictor of cheating that is more spiritual than formally religious, the "psychospiritual" concept of relationship sanctification (i.e., the idea that one's relationship itself is sacred). In a sample of college students in committed relationships (N = 716), we found that higher levels of self-reported relationship sanctification were associated with a lower likelihood of both physical and emotional cheating even when accounting for plausible alternate explanations (general religiosity, problematic alcohol use, and trait self-control). This association was mediated via permissive sexual attitudes; specifically, higher levels of sanctification were associated with less permissive sexual attitudes which, in turn, predicted a lower likelihood of emotional and physical cheating.

26Money lies and extramarital ties: Predicting separate and joint occurrences of financial deception and extramarital infidelity.PubMed

Jeffrey P Dew, Matthew T Saxey, Alison Mettmann
Front Psychol. 2022 Nov 22;13:1038169. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1038169. eCollection 2022.
INTRODUCTION: Although spouses frequently financially deceive each other (MFD; i.e., marital financial deception), few studies have examined this relationship behavior. The purpose of our study is to examine predictors of separate and joint occurrences of MFD and extramarital affairs (EMI). We chose the predictors we tested using social exchange theory (SET). METHODS: We used a national sample of married individuals and multinomial logistic regression analyses to examine how different predictors were associated with membership in three different groups (MFD with no EMI, EMI with no MFD, and both MFD and EMI) relative to the group of participants who reported neither behaviors. RESULTS: Relationship satisfaction was associated with a lower likelihood of being in the MFD-only group, moral commitment was negatively associated with membership in both EMI groups, and personal dedication commitment was negatively associated with membership in both MFD groups. Flirting with someone other than one's spouse was positively associated with being in all three groups relative to the reference group. The personal importance of religion was not associated with group membership. DISCUSSION: Moral commitment, personal dedication commitment, and flirting with someone other than one's spouse predicted these two types of marital deception. It is likely that other issues that affect marital outcomes, comparisons, and monitoring alternatives to the relationship may predict MFD and/or EMI.

27Male Tolerance to Same-Sex Infidelity: A Cross-Cultural Investigation.PubMed

Yan Wang, Menelaos Apostolou
Evol Psychol. 2019 Apr-Jun;17(2):1474704919843892. doi: 10.1177/1474704919843892.
There is accumulating evidence that heterosexual men exhibit tolerance to their partners' same-sex infidelity. The current study examined such tolerance in the Chinese ( N = 949) and the British ( N = 305) cultural contexts. Consistent with the predictions derived from an evolutionary framework, across different cultural settings, men exhibited higher tolerance than women to their partners' same-sex infidelity. In addition, if they had to choose, men were considerably more likely than women to prefer their partners to cheat with an individual of the same than of the opposite sex. Participants were also more tolerant of infidelity involving their short-term than their long-term partners. Moreover, men who preferred same-sex attraction in women were more tolerant to the same-sex infidelity of their female partners than men who did not share these preferences. Finally, men and women who experienced same-sex attractions indicated higher tolerance to infidelity. The implications of these finding for the evolution of same-sex attraction in women were further discussed.

28Effects of marital status and shift work on family function among registered nurses.PubMed

Shu-Yu Tai, Pei-Chen Lin, Yao-Mei Chen, et al.
Ind Health. 2014;52(4):296-303. doi: 10.2486/indhealth.2014-0009. Epub 2014 Jun 7.
This study aims to assess the interactive effect of marital status and shift work on family function. A population-based sample of 1,438 nurses between the ages of 20-45 yr was recruited from Taiwan during the period from July 2005 to April 2006 using a mailed questionnaire. The self-administered questionnaire contained information about demographic data, work status, shift work schedule, and the Family APGAR (Adaptation, Partnership, Growth, Affection, and Resolve) Scale, to evaluate family function. Compared to day shift nurses, non-night and rotation shift nurses had 1.53- and 1.38-fold (95% CI=1.09-2.14 and 1.01-1.88) risk to have poor family function after adjusting for other covariates. Married nurses, by contrast, had a 0.44-fold (95% CI=0.29-0.66) risk to have poor family function compared to single nurses. In addition, married nurses who worked non-night or rotation shifts had a significantly higher percent of poor family function than those married nurses working day shifts; however, similar results were not replicated in single nurses. We concluded that shift work and marital status could influence family function.

29Let's Talk about Sex… and ADHD: Findings from an Anonymous Online Survey.PubMed

Susan Young, Larry J Klassen, Shayne D Reitmeier, et al.
Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2023 Jan 22;20(3):2037. doi: 10.3390/ijerph20032037.
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity. A dearth of studies have investigated psychosexuality in this population, often with few (predominantly male) participants. We recruited individuals with and without ADHD via an anonymous online survey distributed electronically by ADHD support organizations and social media. We investigated sexual history; interests and practices; and relationships. Of 1392 respondents, we classified an 'ADHD' group ( = 541; 30.5% male) and compared them to individuals of similar ages without ADHD, ('Other' group; = 851; 37.6% male). The ADHD group (both males and females) had a significantly higher preference for same-sex or either-sex partners; and higher rates of electronic sexual exchanges, masturbation, and sexually transmitted diseases. They were more adventurous in sexual interests and practices and substantially less satisfied with their partners, both sexually and generally. Within the ADHD group, significant sex differences emerged: females had younger onset of sexual activities, used contraception less frequently, had more sexual partners and practiced more infidelity. Sexual interests differed between the sexes, but females more commonly acted on them, whereas males did not. Findings suggest both sexes engage in risky sexual behaviors, perhaps driven by impulsivity, but risk is substantially greater for females with ADHD.

30Distressing Problems with Sexual Function and Symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.PubMed

Simone Y Goldberg, Maya C Thulin, Hyoun S Kim, et al.
Arch Sex Behav. 2024 Nov;53(10):3739-3745. doi: 10.1007/s10508-024-02977-4. Epub 2024 Aug 19.
Cognitive models of sexual dysfunction situate distraction as a core mechanism underlying difficulties with sexual function. It follows that individuals who have difficulties with inattention and distractibility (e.g., attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; ADHD) may be at increased risk of problems with their sexual function, though previous research is mixed, and no research has examined links with sexual distress despite distress being a necessary criterion for sexual dysfunction. The goals of the current study were to: (1) examine associations between ADHD symptoms, sexual function, and sexual distress; (2) examine group differences in sexual function and sexual distress as a function of presumptive ADHD diagnosis; and (3) establish whether individuals with presumptive ADHD are at greater risk of distressing problems with sexual function relative to controls. In a large mixed-gender community sample (N = 943: controls n = 837, presumptive ADHD n = 106), we found that ADHD symptoms were positively correlated with worse overall sexual function, as well as orgasm difficulties and greater sexual distress. Relative to controls, individuals with presumptive ADHD reported worse sexual function and greater sexual distress, controlling for age, biological sex, and sexual orientation. Individuals with presumptive ADHD were significantly more likely (OR = 2.16) to have distressing problems with sexual function than controls. Core difficulties related to ADHD, including inattention, distractibility, and emotion dysregulation, may make individuals more vulnerable to experiencing problems with sexual function and sexual distress, putting them at risk for developing sexual dysfunction. Taken together, these data support associations between ADHD and distressing sexual function problems, including possible mechanisms explaining these links such as difficulties with emotion regulation.

31Longitudinal Examination of Sexual Risk Behavior in College Students With and Without Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.PubMed

Lisa Weyandt, George J DuPaul, Emily Shepard, et al.
Arch Sex Behav. 2023 Nov;52(8):3505-3519. doi: 10.1007/s10508-023-02660-0. Epub 2023 Aug 7.
The present study sought to identify differences in the rates and predictors of risky sexual behavior among college students with and without attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Current ADHD diagnosis, medication status among those with ADHD, executive functioning, substance use, comorbid anxiety, comorbid depression, and gender were identified as potential predictors of increased risky sexual behavior. Multiple group latent growth curve modeling was used to estimate trajectories of risky sexual behavior across four years of college among college students with ADHD (n = 99, n = 105) and a comparison group (n = 217) recruited from colleges throughout the eastern United States (M age = 18.23 years, 53% female, 70% White). First-year college students with ADHD reported significantly higher rates of sexual risk behavior than their peers without ADHD, with no significant differences found based on medication status. Students with ADHD who were taking medication for ADHD reported significant decreases in risky sexual behavior over time. Among college students with ADHD, anxiety was related to increased current risky sexual behavior in the medicated group, while depression was predictive of decreased future risky sexual behavior in the unmedicated group. Alcohol and cannabis use were significantly associated with increased mean levels of risky sexual behavior across all three groups, and cannabis use was associated with decreased future risky sexual behavior within the comparison group. Executive functioning deficits and male gender were predictive of risky sexual behavior within the comparison group. The results demonstrate that college students with ADHD, regardless of medication status, are at an increased likelihood of engaging in risky sexual behavior.

32Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms and risky sexual behaviours in university students:the i-Share study.PubMed

Claudine Offranc, Charline Galesne, Mélissa Macalli, et al.
BMJ Ment Health. 2025 Dec 17;28(1):e302024. doi: 10.1136/bmjment-2025-302024.
BACKGROUND: Risky sexual behaviours (RSB) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are both major concerns among university students. However, their association remains insufficiently understood. This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between ADHD symptoms and a broad range of RSB in university students. METHODS: A total of 13 085 French students enrolled in the i-Share (Internet-based Students' Health Research Enterprise study (mean age: 20.6 years, SD=2.4) completed self-reported questionnaires assessing ADHD symptoms (Adult Self-Report Scale V.1.1), RSB, sociodemographic characteristics and alcohol and cannabis use. Logistic regression models were used to examine the cross-sectional associations between ADHD symptoms and RSB, adjusting for relevant confounders. RESULTS: A high level of ADHD symptoms was observed in 5.3% of students. In multivariate models, ADHD symptoms were associated with a wide range of RSB, including early first sexual intercourse (adjusted OR (aOR) 1.26; 95% CI 1.06 to 1.51), inconsistent condom use in the last 12 months (aOR 1.26; 95% CI 1.05 to 1.51), diagnosis of a sexually transmitted infection in the last 12 months (aOR 1.60; 95% CI 1.16 to 2.22) and having had multiple sexual partners in the last 12 months (adjusted incidence rate ratio 1.20; 95% CI 1.14 to 1.27). Among female students, ADHD symptoms were associated with lower current use of any form of contraception (aOR 0.59; 95% CI 0.48 to 0.71), and higher odds of having ever used emergency contraception (aOR 1.22; 95% CI 1.02 to 1.47), and having ever had an abortion (aOR 1.77; 95% CI 1.21 to 2.58). CONCLUSIONS: University students with a high level of ADHD symptoms are at increased risk of engaging in a wide range of RSB. Targeted preventive strategies may be particularly beneficial for this population.

33Self-experienced sexual and reproductive health in young women with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder a qualitative interview study.PubMed

Karin Wallin, Inger Wallin Lundell, Lena Hanberger, et al.
BMC Womens Health. 2022 Jul 14;22(1):289. doi: 10.1186/s12905-022-01867-y.
BACKGROUND: Sexual risk behaviors and struggles in romantic relationships result in higher risk of unplanned pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, sexual victimization and lower satisfaction in relationships for young women with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). There is a need to better understand sexual behaviors and the consequences of relational difficulties to help health professionals promote sexual and reproductive health. To deepen knowledge in this area, this study aimed to identify and describe self-experienced sexual and reproductive health in young women with ADHD. METHODS: A qualitative design was used. Data was collected with individual and focus group interviews with 15 young women, aged 15-29, with an ADHD diagnosis, and analyzed with thematic analysis. RESULTS: Data analysis identified the themes Acceptance of being different and Feeling sexually secure. The women reveal feelings of being different from others without ADHD as they break norms of sexual behavior, struggle with romantic relationships, and have difficulties concentrating during sex. There is a need to be understood and accepted, to not feel judged, and to manage romantic relationships. Self-knowledge helps them to recognize needs for support and to develop strategies that can improve sexual satisfaction. Feeling sexually secure illustrates the women's need to feel comfortable with their own sexuality and in control in the sexual situation. Low self-esteem and a negative self-image, described as a consequence of living with ADHD, can compromise communication in sexual situations and increase fear of being rejected. Further, misjudging sexual partners and situations can contribute to sexual victimization. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides knowledge of how ADHD affects emotions and sexual behaviors in young women. The results highlight the need for understanding and acceptance by peers and partners. It accentuates the value of involving the partner in counselling and the importance of self-knowledge. Feeling insecure in sexual relationships further implies the importance of early diagnosis to prevent secondary outcomes of ADHD, and the need for sexual victimization screening in professional settings.

34Detection of intimate partner aggression through dark personality and moral disengagement.PubMed

Laura Ferreiros, Miguel Clemente
Cad Saude Publica. 2023 Sep 18;39(9):e00073523. doi: 10.1590/0102-311XEN073523. eCollection 2023.
Health professionals are often the first to detect abuse. Intimate partner aggression can be approached by studying the personality of the aggressor. From this perspective, dark personality and the use of moral disengagement mechanisms are two key variables. In this study, information was collected from 348 individuals, mostly women, and a questionnaire was applied to determine what their sexual behavior was like with their partner. The Short Dark Tetrad (SD4) test was used to identify dark personality and the Propensity to Moral Disengagement to identify moral disengagement. Data were collected via Google forms and multivariate decision tree analysis (CHAID growth method) was performed. Results show that men score higher on the variables of dark personality variables and use of moral disengagement mechanisms than on the three variables that, along with sex, increase the presence of dark personality and moral disengagement mechanisms: infidelity, pornography consumption, and maintaining homosexual relationships. Infidelity and pornography consumption are characteristics present in all dimensions of dark personality. Moreover, these three variables are defining characteristics of relationships with high sadism scores. Nursing staff are possibly able to detect the presence of these variables in aggressors and thus initiate a process of victim protection. Therefore, this study proposes that nursing staff should be trained to perform this detection.

35Dark personality and intimate partner relationships in young adults.PubMed

Laura Ferreiros, Miguel Clemente
Acta Psychol (Amst). 2022 May;225:103549. doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103549. Epub 2022 Feb 24.
People with dark personality traits tend to be unsympathetic, manipulative, and violent, and this can affect their intimate partner relationships. The objective of this research is to analyze how the presence of the dark personality traits affects young people's intimate couple relationships. Sociodemographic variables, sexual practices, and tendencies towards the partner, moral disengagement (PMD), and the dark personality traits were assessed in 308 participants, all of them aged between 18 and 25, of whom 78.3% were women and 21.2% were men. Men obtained higher scores than women both in moral disengagement and dark personality traits, as did people who were unfaithful or who consumed pornographic content, which conditions the quality of couple relationships. Consistent with this, men with higher levels of dark personality traits and higher use of a moral disengagement mechanism also presented a greater tendency towards infidelity, especially repeated infidelity. Infidelity is highly related to the presence of dark personality traits, unrestricted socio-sexuality, and having more sexual partners. These results aid in the design of interventions to prevent sexual harassment and abuse in young people and their intimate partner relationships.

36Executive function in pathological gamblers and healthy controls.PubMed

David M Ledgerwood, Emily S Orr, Kristen A Kaploun, et al.
J Gambl Stud. 2012 Mar;28(1):89-103. doi: 10.1007/s10899-010-9237-6.
Executive function (EF) deficits may underlie some of the impulse control problems seen in pathological gambling. Pathological gamblers (PGs, n = 45) and controls (n = 45) were compared on several measures of EF (including measures of response inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility and perseveration, planning and decision-making), as well as memory and intelligence tests to examine whether PGs evidence EF dysfunction. Compared with controls, PGs exhibited specific deficits on measures of planning and decision-making. PGs also exhibited relative deficits on a measure of perseveration, but this deficit was no longer significant after controlling for group differences in intelligence. These results suggest that PGs may experience deficits on specific components of EF.

37Do You Have Anything to Hide? Infidelity-Related Behaviors on Social Media Sites and Marital Satisfaction.PubMed

Brandon T McDaniel, Michelle Drouin, Jaclyn D Cravens
Comput Human Behav. 2017 Jan;66:88-95. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2016.09.031. Epub 2016 Sep 25.
Social media provides one route to behaviors that may be potentially harmful to romantic relationships, such as communicating with alternative partners, which can sometimes create relationship conflict, breakups, or divorce. Limited empirical evidence exists concerning social media infidelity-related behaviors and marital relationships. This study examined whether married/cohabiting individuals are using social media sites to engage in online infidelity-related behaviors and to what extent this related to relationship satisfaction, ambivalence, and relational attachment characteristics as reported by 338 married/cohabiting individuals from 176 families. Only a small percentage of married/cohabiting couples reported engaging in social media infidelity-related behaviors; however, more engagement in infidelity-related behaviors on social media was significantly related to lower relationship satisfaction, higher relationship ambivalence, and greater attachment avoidance and anxiety in both women and men. Additionally, attachment anxiety and gender interacted with relationship satisfaction in predicting online infidelity-related behaviors when controlling for other variables. Implications are discussed.

38Marital Quality, Loneliness, and Internet Infidelity.PubMed

Omid Isanejad, Arezoo Bagheri
Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. 2018 Sep;21(9):542-548. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2017.0602.
The rapid development of information technology, such as the Internet and social networks, lead to an increasing number of online relationships in the world and caused some problems for families and society. One of these problems is extramarital relationships that occur through the Internet and social networks. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between marital quality and Internet infidelity by considering the role of loneliness. Participants comprised a total of 406 (190 female and 216 male) married persons, who responded to Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults (SELSA-S), Internet Infidelity Questionnaire (IIQ), and Revised Dyadic Adjustment Scale (RDAS). The structural model showed that marital quality has negative correlation with loneliness and online infidelity and loneliness has positive correlation with online infidelity. Results also showed that loneliness has a mediating role in the relationship between marital quality and online infidelity.

39It's Just a Little Crush: Attraction to an Alternative and Romantic Relationship Quality, Breakups and Infidelity.PubMed

Charlene F Belu, Lucia F O'Sullivan
J Sex Res. 2025 May;62(4):515-528. doi: 10.1080/00224499.2024.2310702. Epub 2024 Feb 12.
Over the course of an intimate relationship, individuals will frequently encounter potential alternative partners and may in fact develop romantic or sexual attraction to them. It is unclear when a more distal attraction to a potential alternative (a "crush") is associated with impaired relationship quality to one's primary relationship. A growing body of work indicates that crushes are common among those in established, ostensibly monogamous relationships. Yet such attractions likely constitute a starting point for establishing new relationships, including through infidelity. This study was designed to help clarify whether and how extradyadic attraction is linked to compromised relationship quality for a primary relationship, infidelity, and breakup. Participants were 542 adults (22-35 years) in exclusive intimate relationships of at least three months' duration who reported an attraction toward a potential alternative. They were recruited online from crowdsourcing websites and social media to complete two surveys, four months apart. Path analyses indicated that greater attraction intensity was linked to lower relationship quality in one's primary relationship. Overall, few participants became romantically or sexually involved with their crush over the course of the study. However, lower relationship quality was linked to desire to engage in infidelity and primary relationship breakup four months later. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for other researchers examining maintenance of intimate relationships, educators who teach about attraction processes, as well as counselors supporting couples in distress.

40The third wheel: the impact of Twitter use on relationship infidelity and divorce.PubMed

Russell B Clayton
Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. 2014 Jul;17(7):425-30. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2013.0570. Epub 2014 Apr 1.
The purpose of this study was to examine how social networking site (SNS) use, specifically Twitter use, influences negative interpersonal relationship outcomes. This study specifically examined the mediational effect of Twitter-related conflict on the relationship between active Twitter use and negative relationship outcomes, and how this mechanism may be contingent on the length of the romantic relationship. A total of 581 Twitter users aged 18 to 67 years (Mage=29, SDage=8.9) completed an online survey questionnaire. Moderation-mediation regression analyses using bootstrapping methods indicated that Twitter-related conflict mediated the relationship between active Twitter use and negative relationship outcomes. The length of the romantic relationship, however, did not moderate the indirect effect on the relationship between active Twitter use and negative relationship outcomes. The results from this study suggest that active Twitter use leads to greater amounts of Twitter-related conflict among romantic partners, which in turn leads to infidelity, breakup, and divorce. This indirect effect is not contingent on the length of the romantic relationship. The current study adds to the growing body of literature investigating SNS use and romantic relationship outcomes.

41Implications of social isolation, separation, and loss during the COVID-19 pandemic for couples' relationships.PubMed

Paula R Pietromonaco, Nickola C Overall
Curr Opin Psychol. 2022 Feb;43:189-194. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.07.014. Epub 2021 Jul 24.
The broad isolation, separation, and loss resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic raise risks for couples' relationship quality and stability. Guided by the vulnerability-stress-adaptation model, we suggest that how pandemic-related loss, isolation, and separation impact couples' relationships will vary depending on the amount and severity of pandemic-related stress, together with enduring personal vulnerabilities (e.g. attachment insecurity), both of which can disrupt adaptive dyadic responses to these challenges. A review of emerging research examining relationship functioning before and during the initial stages of the pandemic offers support for this framework. We draw on additional research to suggest pathways for mitigating relationship disruptions and promoting resilience.

42What Is the Burnout of Mothers with Infants and Toddlers during the COVID-19 Pandemic? In Relation to Parenting Stress, Depression, and Parenting Efficacy.PubMed

Jeong-Hyo Seo, Hee-Kyung Kim
Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022 Apr 3;19(7):4291. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19074291.
Background: The purpose of this study was to analyze the factors influencing burnout of mothers with infants or toddlers in the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: The subjects of this study were 105 mothers who sent their children to daycare centers or kindergartens located in S and G cities. They were women who have experienced caring for children entirely at home during the COVID-19 pandemic. The collected data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-test, ANOVA, Man−Whitney U test, Pearson’s correlation coefficients, and a stepwise multiple regression using the SPSS Window 25.0 program. Results: The subjects’ burnout and parenting stress (r = 0.62, p < 0.001), depression (r = 0.58, p < 0.001), and parenting efficacy (r = −0.62, p < 0.001) showed a large correlation. The factors affecting the subjects’ burnout were parenting stress (β = 0.28, p < 0.001), parenting efficacy (β = −0.40, p < 0.001), depression (β = 0.27, p < 0.001), and spouse’s support (nearly none) (β = 0.18, p = 0.004). These variables explained 64.0% of the subjects’ burnout. Conclusions: Through the research results, it was confirmed that parenting stress, parenting efficacy, depression, and spouse’s support influence the mother’s burnout. Therefore, in future studies, it is necessary to expand mental health programs to lower parenting stress and depression into interventional studies on specific educational strategies such as programs to promote efficacy and improve spouse’s support.

43Initial Challenges of Caregiving During COVID-19: Caregiver Burden, Mental Health, and the Parent-Child Relationship.PubMed

B S Russell, M Hutchison, R Tambling, et al.
Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2020 Oct;51(5):671-682. doi: 10.1007/s10578-020-01037-x.
Research confirms that the mental health burdens following community-wide disasters are extensive, with pervasive impacts noted in individuals and families. It is clear that child disaster outcomes are worst among children of highly distressed caregivers, or those caregivers who experience their own negative mental health outcomes from the disaster. The current study used path analysis to examine concurrent patterns of parents' (n = 420) experience from a national sample during the early months of the U.S. COVID-19 pandemic. The results of a multi-group path analysis, organized by parent gender, indicate good fit to the data [X(10) = 159.04, p < .01]. Results indicate significant linkages between parents' caregiver burden, mental health, and perceptions of children's stress; these in turn are significantly linked to child-parent closeness and conflict, indicating possible spillover effects for depressed parents and compensatory effects for anxious parents. The impact of millions of families sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic for an undefined period of time may lead to unprecedented impacts on individuals' mental health with unknown impacts on child-parent relationships. These impacts may be heightened for families whose caregivers experience increased mental health symptoms, as was the case for fathers in the current sample.

44The Neurobiology of Social Distance.PubMed

Danilo Bzdok, Robin I M Dunbar
Trends Cogn Sci. 2020 Sep;24(9):717-733. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2020.05.016. Epub 2020 Jun 3.
Never before have we experienced social isolation on such a massive scale as we have in response to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). However, we know that the social environment has a dramatic impact on our sense of life satisfaction and well-being. In times of distress, crisis, or disaster, human resilience depends on the richness and strength of social connections, as well as on active engagement in groups and communities. Over recent years, evidence emerging from various disciplines has made it abundantly clear: perceived social isolation (i.e., loneliness) may be the most potent threat to survival and longevity. We highlight the benefits of social bonds, the choreographies of bond creation and maintenance, as well as the neurocognitive basis of social isolation and its deep consequences for mental and physical health.

45Searching for Human Connectedness During COVID-19.PubMed

Margaret McNairy, Brooke Bullington, Kimberly Bloom-Feshbach
J Gen Intern Med. 2020 Oct;35(10):3043-3044. doi: 10.1007/s11606-020-06082-9. Epub 2020 Aug 10.
The COVID-19 pandemic has fundamentally transformed doctor-patient communication, stripping away moments of connection that define the humanism of medicine. The barrier of isolation has impacted patients and patient care, and has also affected the experience of the physician. Though in-person connection is impossible to replicate digitally, technology has restored some sense of togetherness.