Scanning probe microscopy in the field of drug delivery.

The scanning probe microscopes (SPMs) are a group of powerful surface sensitive instruments which when used complimentarily with traditional analytical techniques can provide invaluable, definitive information aiding our understanding and development of drug delivery systems. In this review, the main use of the SPMs (particularly the atomic force microscopy (AFM)) and their successes in forwarding drug delivery are highlighted and categorised into two interlinked sections namely, preformulation and formulation. SPM in preformulation concentrates on applications in pharmaceutical processes including, crystal morphology and modification, discriminating polymorphs, drug dissolution and release, solid state stability and interaction. The ability of the AFM to detect forces between different surfaces and at the same time to operate in liquids or controlled humidity and defined temperatures has also been particularly useful in the study of drug delivery. In formulation, the use of SPMs in different drug delivery systems is discussed in light of different host entry routes.