Cell mechanics at multiple scales.

The response of cells to mechanical stresses is a field of growing inquiry. It is well known that both the morphologic and molecular expression of cells depend, in part, on the local mechanical environment, especially for cells such as endothelial cells that experience shear stress, stretch, and pressures. To systematically study the large variety of responses of cells to physical forces (e.g., signaling, adhesion, or stiffness changes), a number of techniques have been developed and used. Here we present methods for three types of cell mechanical studies, from the multicellular to the subcellular scales, and describe the basic principle and main use of each technique along with some design and setup considerations.