The costs and benefits of occasional sex: theoretical predictions and a case study.

Theory predicts that occasional sexual reproduction in predominantly parthenogenetic organisms offers all the advantages of obligate sexuality without paying its full costs. However, empirical examples identifying and evaluating the costs and benefits of rare sex are scarce. After reviewing the theoretical perspective on rare sex, we present our findings of potential costs and benefits of occasional sex in polyploid, sperm-dependent parthenogens of the planarian flatworm Schmidtea polychroa. Despite costs associated with the production of less fertile tetraploids as sexual intermediates, the benefits of rare sex prevail in S. polychroa and may be sufficiently strong to prevent extinction of parthenogenetic populations. This offers an explanation for the dominance of parthenogenesis in S. polychroa. We discuss the enigmatic question why not all organisms show a mixed reproduction mode.