Hyperparathyroidism in Chronic Kidney Disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is associated with mineral and bone disorders (CKD-MBD) which starts early in the course of the disease and worsens with its progression. The main initial serum biochemistry abnormalities are increases in fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) and parathyroid hormone (PTH) and decreases in 1,25 dihydroxy vitamin D (calcitriol) and soluble α-Klotho (Klotho), allowing serum calcium and phosphate to stay normal for prolonged time periods. Subsequently, serum 25 hydroxy vitamin D (calcidiol) decreases and in late CKD stages hyperphosphatemia develops in the majority of patients. Serum calcium may stay normal, decrease, or increase. Sclerostin, Dickkopf-1, and activin A also play a role in the pathogenesis of CKD-MBD. Both the synthesis and the secretion of PTH are continuously stimulated in the course of CKD, resulting in secondary hyperparathyroidism. In addition to the above systemic disturbances downregulation of vitamin D receptor, calcium-sensing receptor and Klotho expression in parathyroid tissue further enhances PTH overproduction. Last but not least, miRNAs have also been shown to be involved in the hyperparathyroidism of CKD. The chronic stimulation of parathyroid secretory function is not only characterized by a progressive rise in serum PTH but also by parathyroid gland hyperplasia. It results from an increase in parathyroid cell proliferation which is not fully compensated for by a concomitant increase in parathyroid cell apoptosis. Parathyroid hyperplasia is initially of the diffuse, polyclonal type. In late CKD stages it often evolves towards a nodular, monoclonal or multiclonal type of growth. Enhanced parathyroid expression of transforming growth factor-β and its receptor, the epidermal growth factor receptor, is involved in polyclonal hyperplasia. Chromosomal changes have been found to be associated with clonal outgrowth in some, but not the majority of benign parathyroid tumors removed from patients with end-stage kidney disease. In initial CKD stages skeletal resistance to the action of PTH may explain why low bone turnover predominates in a significant proportion of patients, together with other conditions that inhibit bone turnover such as reduced calcitriol levels, sex hormone deficiency, diabetes, Wnt inhibitors and uremic toxins. High turnover bone disease (osteitis fibrosa) occurs only later on, when increased serum PTH levels are able to overcome skeletal PTH resistance. The diagnosis of secondary uremic hyperparathyroidism and osteitis fibrosa relies mainly on serum biochemistry. X-ray and other imaging methods of the skeleton provide diagnostically relevant information only in severe forms. From a therapeutic point of view, it is important to prevent the development of secondary hyperparathyroidism as early as possible in the course of CKD. A variety of prophylactic and therapeutic approaches are available, as outlined in the final part of the chapter. For complete coverage of all related areas of Endocrinology, please visit our on-line FREE web-text, WWW.ENDOTEXT.ORG.