A tricyclic pyrrolobenzodiazepine produced by is associated with cytotoxicity in antibiotic-associated hemorrhagic colitis.

Cytotoxin-producing is the causative agent of antibiotic-associated hemorrhagic colitis (AAHC). Recently, the cytotoxin associated with AAHC was identified as tilivalline, a known pentacyclic pyrrolobenzodiazepine (PBD) metabolite produced by Although this assertion of tilivalline's role in AAHC is supported by evidence from animal experiments, some key aspects of this finding appear to be incompatible with toxicity mechanisms of known PBD toxins. We therefore hypothesized that may produce some other uncharacterized cytotoxins. To address this question, we investigated whether tilivalline alone is indeed necessary and sufficient to induce cytotoxicity or whether also produces other cytotoxins. LC-MS- and NMR-based metabolomic analyses revealed the presence of an abundant tricyclic PBD, provisionally designated kleboxymycin, in the supernatant of toxigenic strains. Moreover, by generating multiple mutants with gene deletions affecting tilivalline biosynthesis, we show that a tryptophanase-deficient, tilivalline-negative mutant induced cytotoxicity similar to tilivalline-positive strains. Furthermore, synthetic kleboxymycin exhibited greater than 9-fold higher cytotoxicity than tilivalline in TC cell culture assays. We also found that the biosynthetic pathways for kleboxymycin and tilivalline appear to overlap, as tilivalline is an indole derivative of kleboxymycin. In summary, our results indicate that tilivalline is not essential for inducing cytotoxicity observed in -associated AAHC and that kleboxymycin is a tilivalline-related bacterial metabolite with even higher cytotoxicity.