Molecular modeling, dynamics simulations, and binding efficiency of berberine derivatives: A new group of RAF inhibitors for cancer treatment.

RAF kinases are a family of enzymes in the MAP kinase pathway that contribute to the development of different types of cancer. BRAF is the most important member of RAF kinases. BRAF mutations have been detected in 7% of all cancers and 66% of melanomas; as such, the FDA has approved a few BRAF inhibitor drugs to date. However, BRAF can activate CRAF leading to resistance to BRAF inhibitors. Berberine (BBR) is an alkaloid that is widely distributed in different plant species. Several studies have been carried out on the anti-cancer effects of BBR but direct targets of BBR are unknown. In this study, interactions of BBR derivatives against BRAF and CRAF kinases were modeled and predicted using an in silico-based approach. To analyze and identify the residues important in BRAF docking, we modeled interactions of ATP, the universal substrate of BRAF, and found that Lys483 and Asp594 are the most important residues involved in both ATP and BBR binding [(The average score = -11.5 kcal/mol (ATP); Range of scores = -7.78 to -9.55 kcal/mol (BBR)]. In addition to these polar residues, Trp530 and Phe583 are also applicable to the molecular docking of BRAF. We also observed that Asp593 was excluded from the enzyme cavity, while Phe594 was included inside the cavity, making the enzyme inactive. Finally, three alternatives for BBR were identified with dual RAF inhibition effects [The best scores against BRAF = -11.62 kcal/mol (BBR-7), -10.64 kcal/mol (BBR-9), and -11.01 kcal/mol (BBR-10); the best scores against CRAF = -9.68 kcal/mol (BBR-7), -9.60 kcal/mol (BBR-9), and -9.20 kcal/mol (BBR-10)]. Direct effects of BBR derivatives against BRAF and CRAF kinases had not yet been reported previously, and, thus, for the first time, we report three cycloprotoberberines as lead compounds against RAF kinases.