Immune-mediated adverse effects of immune-checkpoint inhibitors and their management in cancer.

Within the past decade, immune-checkpoint inhibitors (ICPIs), including anti-programmed cell death 1 (PD-1), anti-programmed cell death 1 ligand 1 (PD-L1), and anti-cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) antibodies, are undoubtfully the most remarkable advances in cancer therapy. The immune responses are modulated by these ICPIs via blocking the inhibitory PD-1/PD-L1 path and result in immune activation in the suppressive microenvironment of the tumor. While ICPIs result in benefits for numerous patients with malignancy and lead to disease control and survival, toxicity and safety problems have emerged as well. Although immune mediated adverse effects due to ICPIs could involve any organ system, skin, endocrine glands, and gastrointestinal tract, are one of the most commonly affected. Fortunately, in most of the cases, these immune‑mediated adverse effects (imAEs) are manageable, while in some cases these toxicities are fulminant and fatal and lead to the withdrawal of treatment. Numerous attempts have been started and are continuing to reduce the incidence rate of imAEs. Further studies are required for a better understanding of these imAEs, decrease the occurrence, and lighten the severity. In this work, we overview the imAEs and also, highlight the most important aspects of the imAEs management.