Chalise Baburam, Paudyal Prem, Kunwar Buddha Bahadur, Bishwakarma Kiran, Thapa Bina, Pant Ramesh Raj, Neupane Bhanu Bhakta
Central Department of Chemistry, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, 44613, Nepal.
Water-Waste Water Quality Assurance Division, Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited, Kathmandu, 44600, Nepal.
Heliyon. 2023 Jun 15;9(6):e17353. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17353. eCollection 2023 Jun.
Thermal springs are the sites where the water temperature lies above ambient temperature. They are widely used for power generation, hot water spas, balneotherapy, agriculture, laundering, and aquaculture. In Nepal, many thermal springs are reported but scientific understanding on water quality and hydrogeochemistry of the springs is very limited. In this study, a total of 28 physico-chemical parameters were measured in water samples collected from 12 thermal springs from Gandaki Province, Nepal. Correlation matrix and multivariate statistical analysis such as principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis were used to understand the water quality and hydrogeochemistry of the hot water springs. The pH, temperature, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, and turbidity in the hot water springs ranged from 7.3 to 8.8, 31.6-64.3 °C, 206-16270 μS/cm, 115-6637 mg/L, and 0.21-63.7 NTU; respectively. The dominance order of major anions and cations were: Cl > HCO > SO > NO > F and Na > Ca > K > Mg; respectively. Comparison of the water quality parameters with the WHO and National Water Quality Standards suggested that the majority of the parameters were within the safe limit. Out of 9 heavy metals and trace elements analyzed Zn, Ni, Cr, Cd, Hg (total), and Pb were found below the safe limit but Fe (total), As (total) and Cu (total) were found higher than the WHO safe limit in total of 3, 5 and 1 sampling sites; respectively. The water quality index (WQI), sodium absorption ratio (SAR), and magnesium hazard (MH) ratio in the hot water springs ranged from 40.9 to 573, 2.2-49.3, 7.1-70.8; respectively. The result of PCA analysis showed that four principal components are required to explain hydrogeochemistry. Cluster analysis suggested that the sampling sites can be grouped into three distinct clusters based on total dissolved solids. Interestingly, the classification of hydrochemical facies using a Piper diagram suggested that 7 out of 12 thermal springs have Na-Cl type water. Finally, a perspective on the suitability of the hot springs for hot water spas and balneotherapy and policy recommendation is provided.
温泉是水温高于环境温度的地方。它们被广泛用于发电、热水温泉浴场、水疗、农业、洗涤和水产养殖。在尼泊尔,有许多温泉被报道,但对这些温泉的水质和水文地球化学的科学认识非常有限。在本研究中,对从尼泊尔甘达基省12个温泉采集的水样中的总共28个物理化学参数进行了测量。使用相关矩阵以及主成分分析(PCA)和聚类分析等多元统计分析来了解热水温泉的水质和水文地球化学。热水温泉中的pH值、温度、电导率、总溶解固体和浊度分别在7.3至8.8、31.6 - 64.3°C、206 - 16270 μS/cm、115 - 6637 mg/L和0.21 - 63.7 NTU范围内。主要阴离子和阳离子的优势顺序分别为:Cl>HCO>SO>NO>F和Na>Ca>K>Mg。将水质参数与世界卫生组织(WHO)和国家水质标准进行比较表明,大多数参数在安全限值内。在所分析的9种重金属和微量元素中,锌、镍、铬、镉、汞(总量)和铅在总共3个、5个和1个采样点低于安全限值,但铁(总量)、砷(总量)和铜(总量)高于WHO安全限值。热水温泉中的水质指数(WQI)、钠吸附比(SAR)和镁危害(MH)比分别在40.9至573、2.2 - 49.3、7.1 - 70.8范围内。PCA分析结果表明,需要四个主成分来解释水文地球化学。聚类分析表明,采样点可根据总溶解固体分为三个不同的聚类。有趣的是,使用派珀图对水化学相进行分类表明,12个温泉中有7个具有Na-Cl型水。最后,给出了关于温泉用于热水温泉浴场和水疗的适宜性的观点以及政策建议。