Cryptic diversity and rampant hybridization in annual gentians on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau revealed by population genomic analysis.

Understanding the evolutionary and ecological processes involved in population differentiation and speciation provides critical insights into biodiversity formation. In this study, we employed 29,865 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and complete plastomes to examine genomic divergence and hybridization in , which is endemic to the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP) region. Genetic clustering revealed that is characterized by geographic genetic structures with five clusters (West, East, Central, South and North). The West cluster has a specific morphological character (i.e., blue corolla) and higher values of compared to the remaining clusters, likely the result of the geological barrier formed by the Yangtze River. The West cluster diverged from the other clusters in the Early Pliocene; these remaining clusters diverged from one another in the Early Quaternary. Phylogenetic reconstructions based on SNPs and plastid data revealed substantial cyto-nuclear conflicts. Genetic clustering and -statistics demonstrated rampant hybridization between the Central and North clusters, along the Bayankala Mountains, which form the geological barrier between the Central and North clusters. Species distribution modeling demonstrated the range of expanded since the Last Interglacial period. Our findings provide genetic and morphological evidence of cryptic diversity in , and identified rampant hybridization between genetic clusters along a geological barrier. These findings suggest that geological barriers and climatic fluctuations have an important role in triggering diversification as well as hybridization, indicating that cryptic diversity and hybridization are essential factors in biodiversity formation within the QTP region.