Comprehensive analysis of spatial heterogeneity reveals the important role of the upper-layer fermented grains in the fermentation and flavor formation of .

Different spatial positions lead to inconsistent fermentation effects and flavors, however, the spatial heterogeneity of () remains unknown. We investigated the microbes, flavors, and physicochemical properties of different layers in fermented grains of using Illumina HiSeq sequencing, two-dimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC × GC-MS) and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-mass (UHPLC-MS). A total of 79 volatiles, 1596 metabolites, 50 bacterial genera, and 52 fungal genera were identified. The contents distribution followed the order: upper layer > bottom layer > middle layer. Organic acids and derivatives were the main differential metabolites across the three layers. Starch, pH, and reducing sugar levels increased from the upper to bottom layer. Saccharomyces and were dominant microbes. the biomarker of upper layer, showed positive correlations with formic acid, ethyl lactate, acetic acid, ethyl linoleate, and ethyl oleate. These findings deepen our understanding of the fermentation and flavor formation mechanisms of