Engineering M2 macrophage-derived exosomes modulate activated T cell cuproptosis to promote immune tolerance in rheumatoid arthritis.

Nanomedicines for immune modulation have made advancements in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). However, due to aberrations in patients' immune systems, inducing antigen-specific immune tolerance while halting disease progression remains a significant challenge. Here, we develop a highly targeted multifunctional nanocomplex, termed M2Exo@CuS-CitP-Rapa (M2CPR), with the aim of selectively inhibiting inflammatory immune reactions while promoting immune tolerance towards specific antigens. M2CPR specifically targets inflammatory tissues in RA, delivering CuS NPs, CitP, Rapa, and endogenous anti-inflammatory factors, thereby ameliorating the inflammatory joint microenvironment. CuS NPs induce Cuproptosis of activated T cells, whose fragments are engulfed by resident or recruited macrophages, resulting in abundant production of TGF-β. TGF-β acts synergistically with Rapa to induce the iDCs into tDCs. tDCs present CitP to Naive T cells, promoting Tregs differentiation. Tregs, in turn, produce more TGF-β, inducing tDCs differentiation, thereby establishing a cycle of immune tolerance. Through in vitro and in vivo experiments, we validate that M2CPR can induce robust and durable antigen-specific immune tolerance, offering a new paradigm for RA therapy.