Impact of dairy farming extension programs on smallholder livestock keepers' welfare among Maasai communities in Arusha, Tanzania.

Despite the crucial role of livestock farming in enhancing livelihoods, production levels remain notably low, particularly in nomadic societies, resulting in diminished welfare among Africa's most renowned communities, the Maasai. To improve the welfare of smallholder livestock keepers, dairy farming extension programs are essential, as they stimulate knowledge transfer, resource accessibility, and adoption of best practices. This study employed a quasi-experimental research design, engaging a total of 431 livestock keepers, comprising 221 treated participants and 210 control group members from the Engaruka, Lepurko, and Selela wards in Monduli District, Arusha, Tanzania. Utilizing the Double Hurdle model and Propensity Score Matching (PSM), the study estimated the determinants of participation and the impacts of these interventions on welfare. The results revealed that demographic factors, social capital, and educational attainment significantly influenced participation rates in dairy farming extension programs. Additionally, the Average Treatment on the Treated (ATT) analysis showed that participation led to an increase of 5.751 liters per day in milk production and a monthly income boost of 11,670 TSHS. However, mean income differences showed that participants earned 55,010 TSHS more than non-participants. This suggests that while extension programs contribute to higher incomes, pre-existing differences such as access to resources, experience, and herd size also contribute to this disparity. These findings informs that effective extension services can markedly improve the welfare of Maasai livestock keepers by providing critical training and resources that enable higher productivity and economic resilience. By fostering social networks, facilitating market access, and enhancing knowledge among farmers, extension programs play a vital role in empowering these communities. Therefore, targeted strategies that promote inclusivity, improve access to resources, and incorporate educational initiatives are recommended to maximize the benefits of these programs.