In situ transglutaminase cross-linking mediated protein-stabilized high internal phase emulsion gels to emulate dorsal adipose tissue: The role of continuous phase networks.

High internal phase emulsions (HIPEs) are potential fat substitutes. However, the insufficient mechanical strength of current HIPEs restricts their capacity to emulate the organization of adipose tissue in meat products. We developed an "one-pot" strategy termed in-situ transglutaminase cross-linking (ITC), to enhance the mechanical strength of protein-stabilized HIPEs. Through systematic evaluation of five commercial proteins-stabilized HIPEs, we found that only gelatin and whey protein isolation capability to form continuous phase networks (CPNs), which synergized with enzymatic cross-linking significantly enhancing HIPEs' mechanical properties. Further studies reveal that transglutaminase acts as a spatial enhancer rather than a chain extender. Nevertheless, the formed isopeptide linkages provide sufficient strength to confer anti-fusible properties and environmental resilience to gelatin-stabilized ITC-HIPEs. This strategy facilitates such ITC-HIPEs to functionally emulate dorsal adipose tissue in coarse-ground sausages applications. Collectively, this study establishes a framework for developing robust HIPEs and offers new insights into adipose tissue-mimetic material design.