Gadiyar Varsha, Pulica Rachael, Aquib Ahmed, Tranos James A, Varsanyi Christopher, Almansa Luis Fernandez, Gaspers Lawrence, Lorenzo Mariana De, Kotenko Sergei V, Tripathi Sushil, Howell Roger W, Choudhary Alok, Calianese David C, Birge Raymond B
bioRxiv. 2025 Apr 18:2025.04.17.649445. doi: 10.1101/2025.04.17.649445.
The phospholipid scramblases Xkr8 and TMEM16F externalize phosphatidylserine (PS) on cells by distinct molecular mechanisms. Xkr8, a caspase-activated scramblase, is activated by caspase-mediated proteolytic cleavage, and in synergy with caspase-mediated inactivation of P4-type ATP-dependent flippases, results in the irreversible externalization of PS on the dying cells and an "eat-me" signal for efferocytosis. In contrast, TMEM16F is a calcium activated scramblase that reversibly externalizes PS on viable cells via the transient increase in intracellular calcium on activated or growth factor stimulated cells. By contrast to the abovementioned homeostatic mechanisms of PS externalization under physiological conditions, PS becomes constitutively externalized in the tumor microenvironment (TME) in many solid tumor types by a complex mechanistic, posited both via the high apoptotic indexes of tumors, but also by the prolonged oncogenic and metabolic stresses that occur in the TME. Such chronic and persistent PS externalization in the TME has been linked to host immune evasion and the tonic interactions of PS with inhibitory PS receptors such as TAM (Tyro3, Axl, Mertk) and TIM (T cell/transmembrane, immunoglobulin, and mucin) family receptors. Here, in an effort to better understand the contributions of apoptotic vs live cell PS-externalization with respect to tumorigenesis and immune evasion, we employed an E0771 luminal B breast cancer orthotopic model and genetically ablated Xkr8 and TMEM16F using CRISPR/Cas9. While neither the knockout of Xkr8 nor TMEM16F showed defects in cell intrinsic properties related to cell growth, tumor sphere formation, cell migration, and growth factor signaling, both knockouts suppressed tumorigenicity in immune-competent mice, but not in NOD/SCID or RAG deficient immune-deficient strains. Mechanistically, at the cell biological level, Xkr8 knockout suppressed macrophage-mediated efferocytosis, and TMEM16F knockout suppressed ER stress/calcium-induced PS externalization. Our data support an emerging idea in immune-oncology and immunotherapy that constitutive PS externalization, mediated by the activation of scramblases on tumor cells, can support immune evasion in the tumor microenvironment thereby linking a combination of apoptosis/efferocytosis and oncogenic stress involving calcium dysregulation the contribute to PS-mediated immune escape and cancer progression.
磷脂翻转酶Xkr8和TMEM16F通过不同的分子机制使细胞上的磷脂酰丝氨酸(PS)外翻。Xkr8是一种半胱天冬酶激活的翻转酶,通过半胱天冬酶介导的蛋白水解切割而被激活,并与半胱天冬酶介导的P4型ATP依赖性向内翻转酶失活协同作用,导致PS在垂死细胞上不可逆地外翻,并产生用于胞葬作用的“吃我”信号。相比之下,TMEM16F是一种钙激活的翻转酶,它通过激活或生长因子刺激的细胞内钙的短暂增加,使活细胞上的PS可逆地外翻。与上述生理条件下PS外翻的稳态机制相反,在许多实体瘤类型中,PS通过复杂的机制在肿瘤微环境(TME)中组成性外翻,这既归因于肿瘤的高凋亡指数,也归因于TME中发生的长期致癌和代谢应激。TME中这种慢性和持续性的PS外翻与宿主免疫逃逸以及PS与抑制性PS受体(如TAM(Tyro3、Axl、Mertk)和TIM(T细胞/跨膜蛋白、免疫球蛋白和粘蛋白)家族受体)的持续性相互作用有关。在这里,为了更好地理解凋亡细胞与活细胞PS外翻在肿瘤发生和免疫逃逸方面的作用,我们采用了E0771腔面B型乳腺癌原位模型,并使用CRISPR/Cas9对Xkr8和TMEM16F进行基因敲除。虽然敲除Xkr8和TMEM16F均未显示出与细胞生长、肿瘤球形成、细胞迁移和生长因子信号传导相关的细胞内在特性缺陷,但两种敲除均抑制了免疫健全小鼠的肿瘤发生,但在NOD/SCID或RAG缺陷的免疫缺陷品系中则没有。从机制上讲,在细胞生物学水平上,敲除Xkr8抑制了巨噬细胞介导的胞葬作用,而敲除TMEMF抑制了内质网应激/钙诱导的PS外翻。我们的数据支持了免疫肿瘤学和免疫治疗中一个新出现的观点,即由肿瘤细胞上翻转酶激活介导的组成性PS外翻可以支持肿瘤微环境中的免疫逃逸,从而将凋亡/胞葬作用和涉及钙失调的致癌应激联系起来,这些因素共同导致PS介导免疫逃逸和癌症进展。
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