Review: Micronutrient supply, developmental programming, and strategic supplementation in ruminant livestock.

Developmental programming, also known as fetal programming, is the idea that changes in offspring development with both immediate and longer-term consequences can arise from in utero stress, including compromised maternal nutrition. Large animal models demonstrate that perturbed maternal nutrition, including macro- and micronutrient supply, (amino acids, vitamins, and trace elements) can alter development during gestational and postnatal offspring outcomes. Strategic supplementation of micronutrients (methionine, arginine, selenium, folate, vitamin B, choline, cobalt, sulfur and others) also alters placental function and therefore, fetal nutrient supply. Specifically, in the offspring, multiple visceral tissues, metabolism, growth, and reproduction are impacted by compromised nutrition and these effects are potentially mitigated by strategic supplementation. Furthermore, compromised maternal nutrition and strategic supplementation alter gene expression, metabolomic patterns, and biochemical pathways in the offspring. Developmental programming is mechanistically driven, at least in part, by epigenetic mechanism and one carbon-metabolism and associated specific micronutrients. The concept of developmental programming is strongly supported by data from ruminant animal models, wherein compromised maternal nutrition is a stressor driving programming events. Changes in the offspring's transcriptome and metabolome can be influenced by changes in maternal nutrition during development. Evidence suggests that strategic supplementation of micronutrients potentially mitigates the compromised development. Future research needs include efforts focused on: mechanistic investigations, livestock production outcomes, animal health implications, and host-microbiome interrelationships associated with maternal nutrition, developmental programming and strategic supplementation.