Reproductive Transitions and Sperm Utilisation in a Facultatively Parthenogenetic Stick Insect.

Facultative parthenogenesis enables females to switch from asexual (parthenogenetic) to sexual reproduction after mating, but the process of fertilisation is poorly understood in such animals. In particular, it is not known whether switching reproductive modes requires changes in the eggs themselves, delaying the transition from laying unfertilised to fertilised eggs. Likewise, very little is known about patterns of sperm precedence in facultatively parthenogenetic females that mate with multiple males. In this study, we manipulated reproductive mode in females of the facultatively parthenogenetic stick insect . We used offspring sex ratio, fertilisation rate and paternity analysis to investigate how females descended from distinct natural populations switch between reproductive modes and utilise sperm from different males. In the switch treatment group, females were first allowed to lay unfertilised eggs and then paired with a male. In the non-switch treatment group, females were instead paired successively with two different males. We collected eggs laid over two successive 10-day periods after male introduction (switch treatment) or substitution (non-switch treatment). We found little difference between the treatment groups in fertilisation rate or in the number of sons produced during the first and second 10-day egg collection. We also observed similar reproductive performance between switch and non-switch treatment groups, but females' population of origin influenced fertilisation rate and offspring sex ratio. In the non-switch group, we found near-equal fertilisation rates by the first and second male. Our results show that females can quickly switch from producing parthenogenetic to fertilised eggs, suggesting that this transition does not require production of distinct types of eggs. Our results also show that females can rapidly utilise sperm from a new mate and exhibit near-complete sperm mixing, which suggests that paternity may be evenly distributed in this species.