Reproductive management of captive parrots.

Studies of the behavior of Amazon parrots throughout a reproductive trial indicate that activities such as food gathering, which may occupy large fractions of the activity budget of wild parrots, occupy little time in captivity. This may be one factor contributing to the large percentage of time during which Amazon parrots are generally inactive in typical captive conditions. The extent of inactivity in captive Amazons creates an open time niche wherein enrichment devices might play a role in improving their well being. Studies of the reproductive endocrinology and the behavior of parrots suggest that hand rearing may impair adult fertility and nest box use. Hand rearing may also cause adult Cockatiels to lay eggs on cage floors rather than in nest boxes. However, the use of nest boxes with oversized nest entrances can be very effective in alleviating chronic floor laying in Cockatiels. Another egg-laying problem in Cockatiels, unwanted egg laying, can be prevented by the use of long-acting formulations of the superactive GnRH agonist, leuprolide acetate, which presumably [figure: see text] acts in birds, as in mammals, by down-regulating pituitary GnRH receptors. Manipulations to limit the increases in prolactin normally seen during incubation in poultry can significantly increase egg production. As clutch size in Cockatiels may also be limited by rising prolactin levels, such manipulations may be effective in stimulating egg production in parrots. An alternative approach for increasing flock egg production is to place foster eggs in nests of Cockatiel pairs that are slow to lay. This technique stimulates males to increase their nest-oriented behavior and, subsequently, may stimulate egg laying in some females that might not otherwise have laid eggs. The parental phases of reproduction in Amazon parrots are often a time of heightened aggressiveness towards humans, but low levels of serum testosterone in males during that time suggest that this particular interspecies aggressiveness may not be dependent on elevated testosterone levels. Occasional human handling during the nestling stage may produce a degree of tameness comparable with hand-reared chicks, yet not impair adult reproductive performance. Such handling may also alter the immune status of captive parrots, and possibly reduce the serum corticosterone response to handling. If so, occasional human handling during the nestling stage could improve the adaptation of parrots to captivity.