[Dutch midwives: image and occupation. Developments in midwifery in Leiden, Arnhem, 's-Hertogenbosch and Leeuwarden, 1650-1865].

My study on the social position of Dutch midwives in early modern Europe was induced by the consistently negative image in the literature at the time. Medical doctors and accoucheurs (obstetricians) expressed critical opinions on both the occupation of midwifery and the midwives themselves. They disparaged the behaviour, activities, training, income, additional jobs and social background of midwives. Later, medical doctors and historians reproduced and promulgated this negative image of midwives. At issue is the extent to which the attitudes of medical doctors and accoucheurs corresponded to those of the broader population, and how these attitudes were related to the actual place in society. The question is if midwives took a marginal position in urban society. My work focusses on four Dutch cities: Arnhem, Leeuwarden, Leiden and 's-Hertogenbosch. It deals with the period 1650-1685. The criticism of medical practitioners and of a accoucheurs on midwives are described. The occupation itself is discussed: the activities of midwives and the development of the profession (regulation, training and rivalry). At the end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth century, the medical profession began to show an interest in childbirth. Rivalry between accoucheurs and midwives, competition between legal and illegal practitioners of midwifery, and in-fighting within the profession tell us something about the development of the profession. From the eighteenth century on, attending problematic births was claimed as a privilege of accoucheurs. Data from municipal archives were used to find out if and to what extent midwives were marginalised. Their geographical mobility, social background (occupations of parents), occupations of husbands, income and domicile are discussed. Analysis of this material indicates that midwives belonged to the common urban labouring class (consisting of artisans and workers), and were not very different from other members of this class. Certainly they were not marginalised, instead they had a relatively privileged position within the common labouring class. Five motives can be distinguished for the negative image expressed by medical doctors and accoucheurs in their publications: 1) professional rivalry, 2) division of theoretical and practical knowledge, 3) class differences, 4) gender, and 5) 'polluting' activities. Studies on ideas of pollution and 'infamous' occupations might lead one to conclude that midwives in the Dutch Republic were stigmatised. I found no evidence, however, that the opinions of medical doctors and accoucheurs were shared by the broader public. Official recognition of midwives - the regulation of their practice and education - protected tham. This has contributed to their position as independent practitioners in the Netherlands up to today.