Introduction: the goals of antimicrobial therapy.

Antimicrobial agents are generally evaluated in preclinical studies assessing in vitro activity, animal models demonstrating in vivo bacteriologic efficacy, and clinical trials primarily investigating safety and clinical efficacy. However, large sample sizes are required to detect any differences in outcomes between antimicrobials in clinical trials, and, generally, studies are powered to show only clinical equivalence. In addition, diagnosis is often based on clinical symptoms, rather than microbiological evidence of bacterial infection, and the patients most likely to have resistant pathogens are often excluded. Clinical efficacy can be achieved in some bacterial infections in which antimicrobials are suboptimal or even not prescribed. However, bacterial eradication maximizes clinical efficacy and may also reduce the development and spread of resistant organisms. The goal of antimicrobial therapy is, therefore, to eradicate bacteria at the site of infection. Bacterial eradication is not usually assessed as a primary endpoint within the limits of currently recommended clinical trial design. However, pharmacokinetic (PK) (serum concentration profiles, penetration to site of infection) and pharmacodynamic (PD) (susceptibility, concentration- versus time-dependent killing, post-antimicrobial effects) criteria can be used to predict bacteriologic efficacy. PK/PD predictions should be confirmed during all phases of antimicrobial development and throughout clinical use in response to changing patterns of resistance. A clear rationale for dose recommendations can be determined preclinically based on PK/PD parameters, and correlated with efficacy, safety and resistance endpoints in clinical trials. The duration of treatment and dose should be the shortest that will reliably eradicate the pathogen(s), and that is safe and well tolerated. Currently available agents vary significantly in their ability to achieve PK/PD parameters necessary for bacteriologic eradication. Recommendations for appropriate antimicrobial therapy should be based on PK/PD parameters, with the aim of achieving the maximum potential for eradication of both existing and emerging resistant pathogens.