New insights into the regulation of erythroid cells.

The regulation of erythroid cells is complex and occurs at multiple levels. Erythroid precursors, once committed to this lineage, develop in association with specific macrophages within erythroblastic islands. While erythropoietin (Epo) is the principal regulator of erythroid progenitors, other cytokines and nuclear hormones also play an important role in the maturation of these cells. Signalling from the Epo-receptor activates several pathways, including the JAK/STAT, ras/raf/MAP kinase and PI3 kinase/Akt cascades to promote cell survival, proliferation and differentiation. Transcription factors such as GATA-1, EKLF and NF-E2 are crucial for progression along the erythroid maturation pathway; these, and a myriad of other transcription factors, must be expressed at the correct developmental stage for normal red blood cells to be formed.