Testing for clonal propagation.

The conceptual basis for testing clonal propagation is reconsidered with the result that two steps need to be distinguished clearly: (1) specification of the characteristics of multilocus genotype frequencies that result from sexual reproduction together with the kinds of deviations from these characteristics that are produced by clonal propagation, and (2) a statistical method for detecting these deviations in random samples. It is pointed out that a meaningful characterization of sexual reproduction reflects the association of genes in (multilocus) genotypes within the bounds set by the underlying gene frequencies. An appropriate measure of relative gene association is developed which is equivalent to a multilocus generalization of the standardized gametic disequilibrium (linkage disequilibrium). Its application to the characterization of sexually produced multilocus genotypes is demonstrated. The resulting hypothesis on the frequency of a sexually produced genotype is tested with the help of the (significance) probability of obtaining at least two copies of the genotype in question in a random sample of a given size. If at least two copies of the genotype are observed in a sample, and if the probability is significant, then the hypothesis of sexual reproduction is rejected in favor of the assumption that all copies of the genotype belong to the same clone. Common testing approaches rest on the hypothesis of completely independent association of genes in genotypes and on the (significance) probability of obtaining at least as many copies of a genotype as observed in a sample. The validity of these approaches is discussed in relation to the above considerations and recommendations are set out for conducting appropriate tests.