Mammographic equipment, technique, and quality control.

The most important improvements in mammographic technique were the introduction of single- or double-emulsion high-contrast film-screen combinations for mammography, the use of a specially designed low-kilovoltage Bucky grid to reduce scattered radiation, and the introduction of smaller focal spots to improve imaging geometry. Magnification techniques, especially the spot-film technique, yields clearer delineation of high-contrast microcalcifications. Dedicated mammographic equipment with specially designed x-ray tubes is necessary for modern high-quality mammography. However, in many modern mammographic units, the automatic exposure controller still fails to provide appropriate and constant optical film density over a wide range of tissue thickness and absorption. Extended-cycle processing of single-emulsion mammographic films can yield better image contrast and reduce exposure by up to 30%. Exposure times of less than 1 second are recommended to avoid the unnecessary higher doses caused by longer exposure times and reciprocity law failure. The wide dynamic range in mammography can be reduced by a beam equalization filter, and thus be better adapted to the decreased latitude of modern high-contrast mammographic screen-film systems. Mammographic film reading (detection of subtle microcalcifications) can be facilitated by modern computer evaluation of previously digitized mammograms. Standardization and assurance of image quality have been major challenges in the technical development of mammography. Different technical and anthropomorphic phantoms have been designed to measure and compare practical image quality. Detailed quality control measures have been developed. The benefit of a single or annual screening mammography, calculated in gained life expectancy, by far outweighs the relative risk for radiation-induced breast cancer.