Dealing with missing values in large-scale studies: microarray data imputation and beyond.

High-throughput biotechnologies, such as gene expression microarrays or mass-spectrometry-based proteomic assays, suffer from frequent missing values due to various experimental reasons. Since the missing data points can hinder downstream analyses, there exists a wide variety of ways in which to deal with missing values in large-scale data sets. Nowadays, it has become routine to estimate (or impute) the missing values prior to the actual data analysis. After nearly a decade since the publication of the first missing value imputation methods for gene expression microarray data, new imputation approaches are still being developed at an increasing rate. However, what is lagging behind is a systematic and objective evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of the different approaches when faced with different types of data sets and experimental questions. In this review, the present strategies for missing value imputation and the measures for evaluating their performance are described. The imputation methods are first reviewed in the context of gene expression microarray data, since most of the methods have been developed for estimating gene expression levels; then, we turn to other large-scale data sets that also suffer from the problems posed by missing values, together with pointers to possible imputation approaches in these settings. Along with a description of the basic principles behind the different imputation approaches, the review tries to provide practical guidance for the users of high-throughput technologies on how to choose the imputation tool for their data and questions, and some additional research directions for the developers of imputation methodologies.