Recent advances in trace analysis of pharmaceutical genotoxic impurities.

Genotoxic impurities (GTIs) in pharmaceuticals at trace levels are of increasing concerns to both pharmaceutical industries and regulatory agencies due to their potentials for human carcinogenesis. Determination of these impurities at ppm levels requires highly sensitive analytical methodologies, which poses tremendous challenges on analytical communities in pharmaceutical R&D. Practical guidance with respect to the analytical determination of diverse classes of GTIs is currently lacking in the literature. This article provides an industrial perspective with regard to the analysis of various structural classes of GTIs that are commonly encountered during chemical development. The recent literatures will be reviewed, and several practical approaches for enhancing analyte detectability developed in recent years will be highlighted. As such, this article is organized into the following main sections: (1) trace analysis toolbox including sample introduction, separation, and detection techniques, as well as several 'general' approaches for enhancing detectability; (2) method development: chemical structure and property-based approaches; (3) method validation considerations; and (4) testing and control strategies in process chemistry. The general approaches for enhancing detection sensitivity to be discussed include chemical derivatization, 'matrix deactivation', and 'coordination ion spray-mass spectrometry'. Leveraging the use of these general approaches in method development greatly facilitates the analysis of poorly detectable or unstable/reactive GTIs. It is the authors' intent to provide a contemporary perspective on method development and validation that can guide analytical scientists in the pharmaceutical industries.