Tardive dyskinesia: clinical presentation and treatment.

Tardive dyskinesia (TD) is a common and potentially irreversible side effect of dopamine blocking agents, most often antipsychotics. It is often socially and sometimes also physically disabling. The clinical picture can be divided into orofacial, limb-truncal, and respiratory dyskinesia. The clinical options to prevent or mitigate TD include psychoeducation, systematic screening, and evaluation of the need for antipsychotics and/or dosages, managementof known risk factors, and switching to an antipsychotic with a lower risk of TD. There is no evidence-based approach for treating existing TD but several clinical interventions can be effective including discontinuing the antipsychotics or reducing the dosage, switching to clozapine, adding an antidyskinetic agent, or applying deep brain stimulation.