The circadian organization of the cardiovascular system in health and disease.

In normal conditions, the temporal organization of blood pressure (BP) is mainly controlled by neuroendocrine mechanisms. Above all, the monoaminergic systems (including variations in activity of the autonomous nervous system, and in secretion of biogenic amines) appear to integrate the major driving factors of temporal variability, but evidence is available also for a role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal, hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid, opioid, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone, and endothelial systems, as well as other vasoactive peptides. Many hormones with established actions on the cardiovascular system (arginine vasopressin, vasoactive intestinal peptide, melatonin, somatotropin, insulin, steroids, serotonin, CRF, ACTH, TRH, endogenous opioids, and prostaglandin E2) are also involved in sleep induction or arousal, which in turn affects BP regulation. Hence, physical, mental, and pathological stimuli which may drive activation or inhibition of these neuroendocrine effectors of biological rhythmicity, may also interfere with the temporal BP structure. On the other hand, the immediate adaptation of the exogenous components of BP rhythms to the demands of the environment are modulated by the circadian-time-dependent responsiveness of the biological oscillators and their neuroendocrine effectors. These notions may contribute to a better understanding of the pathophysiology and therapeutics of hypertension, myocardial ischemia and infarction, cardiac arrhythmias and all kind of acute cardiovascular accidents. For instance, the normal temporal balance between external stimuli and neurohumoral influences with endogenous rhythmicity is preserved in uncomplicated, essential hypertension, whereas it is frequently lost in complicated and secondary forms of hypertension where gross alterations are found in the circadian profile of BP. When all the gates of the critical physiologic functions are aligned at the same time, the susceptibility, and thus risk, of adverse events becomes extremely high, even in the presence of minor environmental stimuli that could be usually harmless, and circadian rhythms of cardiovascular events are observed. This implies that one cannot afford to miss what happens during day but also night. Moreover, the requirement for preventive and therapeutic interventions varies predictably during the 24 h, suggesting that the delivery of protective or preventive medications should be synchronized in time in proportion to need, as determined by established rhythmic patterns in cardiovascular function as well as risk, in a manner that will avert or minimize their undesired side effects.