Calix[4]pyrrole-based ion pair receptors.

Ion pair receptors, which are able to bind concurrently both a cation and an anion, often display higher selectivity and affinity for specific ion pairs than simple ion receptors capable of recognizing primarily either a cation or an anion. This enhancement in recognition function is attributable to direct or indirect cooperative interactions between cobound ions via electrostatic attractions between oppositely charged ions, as well as to positive allosteric effects. In addition, by virtue of binding the counterions of the targeted ion, ion pair receptors can minimize the solvation of the counterions, which can otherwise have a negative effect on the interactions between the receptors and the targeted ions. As a result of their more favorable interactions, ion pair receptors are attractive for use in applications, such as extraction and sensing, where control of the binding interactions is advantageous. In this Account, we illustrate this potential in the context of ion pair receptors based on the calix[4]pyrrole scaffold. Both simple ditopic ion pair receptors, containing sites for the recognition of a single anion and single cation, and so-called multitopic ion pair receptors will be discussed. The latter systems differ from conventional, so-called ditopic ion pair receptors in that they contain more than one binding site for a given targeted ion (e.g., a cation). This permits a level of selectivity and control over binding function not normally seen for simple ion or ion pair receptors containing one or two binding sites, respectively. Calix[4]pyrroles are macrocyclic compounds consisting of four pyrrole units linked via fully substituted sp(3) hybridized meso carbon atoms. They are effective receptors for Lewis basic anions (e.g., halides) in typical organic media and under certain conditions will recognize ion pairs containing charge diffuse cations, such as a small alkylammonium, imidazolium, or cesium cations. The calix[4]pyrrole framework is further attractive in that it is relatively easy to modify. In particular, functionalization of the β-pyrrolic carbon and meso-carbon atoms with simple crown ethers or calix[4]arene crown ethers can produce heteromultitopic ion pair receptors containing more than two cation binding sites. This allows the interactions between receptors and ions to be manipulated on a higher level than can be achieved using simple ion receptors or heteroditopic ion pair receptors and has made these systems attractive for use in ion transport, recognition, and extraction. Recent progress in developing calix[4]pyrroles as both multitopic and more conventional ion pair receptors is summarized in this Account. The emphasis will be on our own work.