Hypocretin/Orexin and Plastic Adaptations Associated with Drug Abuse.

Dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) are a critical part of the neural circuits that underlie reward learning and motivation. Dopamine neurons send dense projections throughout the brain and recent observations suggest that both the intrinsic properties and the functional output of dopamine neurons are dependent on projection target and are subject to neuromodulatory influences. Lateral hypothalamic hypocretin (also termed orexin) neurons project to the VTA and contain both hypocretin and dynorphin peptides in the same dense core vesicles suggesting they may be co-released. Hypocretin peptides act at excitatory G protein-coupled receptors and dynorphin acts at inhibitory G protein-coupled receptors, which are both expressed on subpopulations of dopamine neurons. This review describes a role for neuromodulation of dopamine neurons and the influence on motivated behaviour in response to natural and drug rewards.