ATTRACTIVE STRUCTURES AND THE STABILITY OF HERMAPHRODITIC SEX EXPRESSION IN FLOWERING PLANTS.

Plant attributes serving both male and female sex functions are thought to favor hermaphroditic breeding systems over systems where sex expression is separated between individuals. Morphological features used by plants to attract biotic pollinators can be considered in this light, because such "attractive" structures are prerequisite for both pollen donation and receipt. A model involving allocation of a limiting resource between attractive structures benefiting both sex functions, structures benefiting male function only, and structures benefiting female function only, is constructed and analyzed using the evolutionary stable strategy (ESS) approach. Contrary to expectation, conditions resulting in large allocation to attractive structures tend to destabilize hermaphroditism, although the effect is slight. Substantial asymmetry in the benefits accruing to male and female fertility for a given investment in pollinator attraction produces more pronounced effects, reducing the parameter space in which hermaphroditism is expected. Results of this model are used to assess the importance of "accelerating gain" curves previously suggested for the evolution of dioecy in flowering plants. Accelerating gains associated with fruit production and dispersal represent female function only, and can be sufficient to initiate evolution toward dioecy. Accelerating gains associated with pollinator attraction may contribute to the evolution of separate sexes only if male function benefits from increased investment in attractive structures at a disproportionate rate compared to female function. Even in this instance, though, hermaphroditism may be evolutionarily stable.