Listeriolysin O: from bazooka to Swiss army knife.

() is a Gram-positive facultative intracellular pathogen. Infections in humans can lead to listeriosis, a systemic disease with a high mortality rate. One important mechanism of dissemination involves cell-to-cell spread after bacteria have entered the cytosol of host cells. Listeriolysin O (LLO; encoded by the gene) is a virulence factor present in that plays a central role in the cell-to-cell spread process. LLO is a member of the cholesterol-dependent cytolysin (CDC) family of toxins that were initially thought to promote disease largely by inducing cell death and tissue destruction-essentially acting like a 'bazooka'. This view was supported by structural studies showing CDCs can form large pores in membranes. However, it is now appreciated that LLO has many subtle activities during infection of host cells, and many of these likely do not involve large pores, but rather small membrane perforations. It is also appreciated that membrane repair pathways of host cells play a major role in limiting membrane damage by LLO and other toxins. LLO is now thought to represent a 'Swiss army knife', a versatile tool that allows to induce many membrane alterations and cellular responses that promote bacterial dissemination during infection.This article is part of the themed issue 'Membrane pores: from structure and assembly, to medicine and technology'.