Differential induction of apoptosis and autophagy by pyrrolizidine alkaloid clivorine in human hepatoma Huh-7.5 cells and its toxic implication.

Growing evidence suggests that the pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs)-induced hepatotoxicity is mediated by multiple cell death/defence modalities. However, the detailed mechanisms are still lacking. In this study, the hepatotoxic effects of four PAs including three retronecine-type ones (senecionine, seneciphylline and monocrotaline) and one otonecine-type (clivorine) on the proliferation of Huh-7.5 cells and the possible mechanisms were investigated. The results showed that all the PAs could inhibit cell proliferation and induce apoptosis in a concentration-dependent manner. Among them clivorine was the most significant one. In addition to its effect on apoptosis, clivorine treatment could promote autophagy in Huh-7.5 cells, as evidenced by the accumulation of autophagosomes, the enhancement of LC3B expression at the concentrations close to its IC0 value, and the increased conversion of LC3B-I to LC3B-II in the presence of lysosomal inhibitor (chloroquine) and decreased formation of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-LC3 positive puncta in the presence of autophagic sequestration inhibitor (3-methyladenine). Among the other tested PAs, senecionine and seneciphylline also activated autophagy at the same concentrations used for clivorine but monocrotaline did not. Furthermore, our study demonstrated that suppression or enhancement of autophagy resulted in the remarkable enhancement or suppression of senecionine, seneciphylline and clivorine-induced apoptosis at the concentration close to the IC10 for clivorine, respectively, indicating a protective role of autophagy against the PA-induced apoptosis at the low level of exposure. Collectively, our data suggest that PAs in different structures may exert different toxic disturbances on the liver cells. Apoptosis may be one of the most common models of the PA-induced cytotoxicity, while autophagy may be a structure-dependent defence model in the early stage of PA intoxication. Differential induction of apoptosis and autophagy probably depending on the concentration is essential for the cytotoxic potency of clivorine.