Divergent impact of gender in advancement of liver injuries, diseases, and carcinogenesis.

Several investigations have revealed that liver diseases exhibit gender biases, but identifying the root causes of such biases has been challenging. Evidence of gender differences in liver function is present from the early stage of embryonic development. The differences in access to care and treatment as well as diagnostic deliberation may affect gender-specific differences in liver disease progression. Apart from the pathogenesis, xenobiotic metabolism, immune responses, gene expressions, mitochondrial function, lipid composition, and enzyme activities also differ in this sexually dimorphic organ. Differences in a social environment and lifestyle of men and women may also be involved in the basic mechanisms underlying the sex-associated differences and protective or aggravating effects of sex hormones during viral infections, alcoholic and non-alcoholic chronic and/or acute mode of liver injuries, carcinogenesis, autoimmune responses, and liver transplantation outcome. We summarized here the recent findings regarding the influence of sex hormones on immune responses underlying the pathology of the liver diseases in humans and animal models.