Muscles and fascial elements of the antebrachium and manus of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana, Blumenbach 1797): starring comparative and functional considerations.

The structure of the limbs of elephants is unusual among mammals. In African elephants (Loxodonta africana, Blumenbach 1797), the front limbs serve to support the greatest part of the body mass of the largest land animal. In this study, we present new and detailed anatomical data regarding muscular and specific fascial structures of the lower front limb which were examined by means of standard anatomical and histological techniques. The muscles and tendons of the forearm (antebrachium) and hand (manus) are tightly surrounded by thick, highly elastic fascial layers which fuse with the lacertus (lac.) fibrosus and the so-called ligamentum (lig.) humeroulnare. A well-developed musculus (m.) brachioradialis occupies the proximolateral aspect of the forearm and its tendon inserts together with the lac. fibrosus on the os carpi intermedium. The lac. fibrosus, the lig. humeroulnare and the m. flexor carpi radialis reveal a large proportion of elastic fibres. These three structures may play an important role in storing strain energy thus promoting energy-saving locomotion. On the palmar aspect of the carpus, metacarpus and digits, short flexor, abductor, adductor, lumbricales and interossei muscles are present, whereas supinator muscles are absent in all specimens. The short muscles of the hand together with specific dorsal tendons enable precise movements of specific toes.