Human-modified biogeographic patterns and conservation in game birds: The dilemma of the black francolin (Francolinus francolinus, Phasianidae) in Pakistan.

The ever-increasing human-mediated wildlife reshuffling is raising concern for the conservation of biodiversity. The loss of biological distinctiveness among regions lessens the genetic diversity and consequently the evolutionary potential of local biotas to tackle present-day global change and human disturbance. This process may be sometimes cryptic unless investigated by means of a molecular approach. In this respect, game birds are a paradigmatic case. The black francolin (Francolinus francolinus, Phasianidae) is a medium-sized galliform whose distribution range stretches from Cyprus to the Gulf of Bengal. Six morphologic subspecies are known, with three of which occurring in Pakistan, where the species is heavily hunted and used as pet for chirping competitions. We genotyped 98 samples (feathers) at both the entire mitochondrial DNA Control Region gene and nine microsatellite loci to get a deeper insight into the genetic diversity of the black francolin in Pakistan in order to offer cogent recommendations for its conservation management. We identified several mtDNA lineages that were consistent with the currently described subspecies/taxonomy whose pattern of co-occurrence is compatible with the geological history and the faunal movement routes of the region under study. However, the biparentally inherited microsatellites returned a quite discordant picture of an extensive, sex-biased genetic mixing due to the intensive relocations of already overharvested male individuals for chirping competitions. Our results indicated that the genetic integrity of the black francolin in Pakistan could be seriously at risk and call for monitoring and limiting its trade other than enhancing the public awareness of the importance of local biodiversity resources.